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Conscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority, but it is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require citizens (often just males) to serve in their armed forces. It is known by various names—for example, the conscription program in the United States was known colloquially as "the draft." Those who believe in a world of peace and harmony have suggested that involuntary labor of this sort is akin to slavery.

Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and "crises" of supply. Others, regarding military service for a minimum time period to be the responsibility of every citizen, maintain the requirement. Arguments in favor of this system go beyond defense of the nation, and include such benefits as providing a rite of passage into adulthood and citizenship, engendering community-building and camaraderie among peers, and promoting patriotism.

While such outcomes may indeed be beneficial, both to the individuals and society as a whole, there are alternative methods of accomplishing them that do not involve training in the use of weapons of war, and the danger of patriotism that becomes intolerant of those from other nations. While it has been necessary in the past for nations to develop defense forces for the protection of their citizens, the establishment of a peaceful world requires that we be "conscripted" into training that breaks down the barriers between different nations and teaches all people to live in harmony.

Definition

Conscription is the act of forcing someone into military service. It derives from the more general term of involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. The word derives from the Latin conscriptionem, which refers to the gathering of troops by written orders, and conscribere, which means "to put a name on a list or roll, especially a list of soldiers." A person who becomes a member of the armed forces through the process of conscription is called a conscript.

Referring to forced service in the armed forces, the term "conscription" has two main meanings:

Forced service, usually of young men of a given age, such as 17–18 years, for a set period of time, commonly 1–2 years. In the United Kingdom and Singapore, this was commonly known as "national service;" in New Zealand, "compulsory military training" and later national service; in Norway, Safeguard Duty or 1st time service.
Forced service, for an indefinite period of time, in the context of a widespread mobilization of forces for fighting war, including on the home territory, usually imposed on men in a much wider age group (such as 18–45). This was referred to in the United States during the Vietnam War as "the draft;" in the United Kingdom this was commonly known as "call-up."

Strictly speaking, "the draft" is the process by which individuals are chosen for conscription; conscription being the actual compulsory induction of individuals into the armed services.

The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectees" in the United States (from the Selective Service System or the Selective Service Initiative announced in 2004). This differentiates those who have volunteered for service, known as "enlisted" in the United States, in roles other than as commissioned officers.

Conscription typically involves individuals who are deemed fit for military service. At times, however, governments have instituted universal military service, in which all men or all people of a certain age are conscripted.

History

Required service in the military has existed since ancient times, including warriors in the Aztec Empire, citizen militiamen in ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire. Many countries in medieval Europe used a similar system to develop their military forces.

In Scandinavia, the institution known as Leidang was a public levy of free farmers that were organized into a coastal fleet for the purpose of defense, coerced trade, plunderings, and aggressive wars. Normally, the fleet levy was on expeditions for two or three summer months. All free men, namely the peasants, were obliged to take part in or contribute to the Leidang, and all Leidang were called to arms when invading forces threatened the land.

In Anglo-Saxon England, compulsory military service was employed on the local level in the fyrd, a militia of all able-bodied men that was called up from the districts threatened with attack. The system was developed by Alfred the Great in the ninth century. Service in the fyrd was usually of short duration and the participants were obliged to provide their own arms and provisions.

Corvée labor was an administrative practice primarily found in feudal societies, a type of annual tax payable as labor by the serf to the monarch, vassal, overlord, or lord of the manor. In addition to being used to complete royal projects, to maintain roads and other public facilities, and to provide labor to maintain the feudal estate, it was also used to conscript men into the military. The corvée was abolished in France on August 4, 1789, shortly after the beginning of the French Revolution, along with a number of other feudal privileges accorded to French landlords. From that time, most countries restricted corvée labor to military conscription and prison labor.

In the sixteenth century, Machiavelli, in his discussion of The Art of War, proposed that states should develop citizen militias, which would be much more reliable than the untrustworthy mercenary soldiers. Machiavelli despised the use of mercenaries and professional armies, which at this time were ravaging the divided Italian states. He argued that every able-bodied man in a nation was a potential soldier and could by means of conscription be required to serve in the armed forces. He recognized the connection between conscription and the creation of a nation, successfully bolstering patriotism.

Most governments have used conscription at some time, usually when the voluntary enlistment of soldiers failed to meet military needs. Conscription by national governments became widespread in Europe during the nineteenth century.

Origins of modern conscription

Modern conscription was invented during the French Revolution, allowing the Republic to defend itself from European monarchies' attacks. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the September 5, 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation." It enabled the creation of the Grande Armée, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms," which successfully battled European professional armies.

The sending of conscripts to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation has been highly contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter disputes broke out in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II. Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s.

Communist countries, particularly the Soviet Union and its satellites, used conscription. The tradition continued in Russia and in numerous other countries formed in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Today

Small countries often have mandatory military service, citing the inability to form a professional army of sufficient size. Israel is a small nation that maintains its Israeli Defense Force through conscription, deemed essential as a result of the various threats facing it in the Middle East. Neutral countries, in particular, institute conscription to organize an independent defense, that is, to eliminate the need for foreign support.

Large countries are able to create large professional armies. Possession of nuclear weapons also enables the country to use nuclear deterrent instead of a large regular army as the mainstay of defense. An alliance with others, such as a NATO membership, may also provide a "nuclear umbrella" that also allows a country to eschew large-scale conscription.

In the United States, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, made the government unwilling to consider mass conscription. Also, the United States has a considerable nuclear weapons arsenal, and relies on nuclear deterrent. Nevertheless, the possibility and value of conscription as a deterrent to acts of war has been suggested on occasion.^[1] Several developed nations, however, do not rely on nuclear deterrent and maintain conscription.

Controversy

Arguments for conscription

The main arguments in favor of conscription normally center on rites of passage, manpower requirements, and improving quality.

Rites of passage

In many countries, conscription serves as a rite of passage. The prospective man is tested to see whether or not he can endure the hardships of military training and earn the right to be called a man. Military service, in countries that have it, may then be seen as the test of manhood. Conscription may inspire camaraderie, unifying a people: All able-bodied males together as a union have had the same experience and are soldiers, and that may create unity and team spirit within a nation. Some communitarians argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching the general population basic survival skills such as first aid, swimming, wilderness survival, and so on.

Some ideologies and cultures, especially in the East, and those based on collectivism or statism, value the society and common good above the life of an individual. Just as cells form a body, people form a society, and the interest of the society overcomes the interests of the individual, including his freedom and human rights; cells must die so that the human body can live. Those ideologies and world-views justify the state to force its members to protect itself and risk their lives and limbs for the common good. In states based on society-centered ideologies, world-views, and religions, conscription is the natural way of raising the army.

Manpower

Small countries have several options to raise a sizable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how Switzerland managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. The Swiss militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the halberd) were quickly adopted by their enemies. This in turn made the Swiss very popular as mercenaries; many rulers even raised Swiss Guards. The rich Flemish trade cities of the early fourteenth century raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous Battle of the Golden Spurs (1302) is a good example.

Conscription becomes necessary in a total war. Total war means harnessing the entire nation for warfare. In that viewpoint, the citizens exist solely to support the nation, and citizens are nothing but resource supplies for the nation's war machinery. The conscription can be seen as the natural way to rely on man's role for the society: Each and every able-bodied male is first and foremost a soldier and only secondarily a citizen. In the extreme, peace can be seen as nothing short of preparation period for new war and repairing the damage and re-arming the armed forces.

Quality

The personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength. Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority and in extreme cases can be discharged for medical reasons. The conscript force may also receive the best of the youth, who would never join a professional army.

Many conscripts are from such social strata that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior and commissioned and non-commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller. As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding to their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime.^[2] The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces. The Israeli Defense Forces are based on conscription and its excellent performance is often explained by the quality of the manpower.

Conscripts come from various backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is arguably more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the frequently lower morale and experience of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations. This was witnessed in the Vietnam War and Soviet-Afghan War.

Arguments against conscription

Arguments against conscription focus on issues of slavery, discrimination, and discipline problems.

Slavery

Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence—Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, H.G. Wells, Bertrand Russell, and Thomas Mann in Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth—1930

Some groups, such as libertarians, say that conscription constitutes slavery, since it is mandatory work.^[3] Under the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or other involuntary servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see conscription as unconstitutional (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. Nonetheless, in 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution.^[4]

Conscription even ends up mirroring many of the infamous traits of chattel slavery in the American South; one's life is in the hands of those giving orders, to be sacrificed at will, one can be severely punished, even imprisoned, beaten, or killed, for trying to escape. Capital punishment has been commonly used as means of maintaining morale and keeping discipline in conscription armies but is currently not used in contemporary Western countries with conscription in peacetime.

In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service—usually digging up potatoes in the field at zero wage cost. This contributed to the lack of incentives for the Soviet planned economy system to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech. In Soviet-bloc Hungary, more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of rifle training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons," which usually hand-built rail tracks "for free," and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce.

Discrimination

Conscription is usually limited to young people, and the burden of conscription is almost never spread equally across all age groups. The youngest people considered qualified are usually conscripted first. Opponents of ageism, and advocates of youth liberation, argue that age-based military conscription is the most severe disparity on the basis of age of any government mandate on individuals. Even in countries with elected governments, conscripts are often too young to be allowed to vote or participate in decisions on whether to go to war or to impose or set policies for conscription. The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which lowered the voting age to 18, was proposed and approved largely in response to criticism of conscription based on the unfairness of drafting men too young to be allowed to vote. But draft-age voters in the U.S. are still overwhelmingly outnumbered by voters considered to be too old to be conscripted.

Traditionally, conscription has been limited to only the male population. Women and non-able-bodied males have been exempted from conscription. While many societies have traditionally considered conscription as a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood—"making boys into men"—most modern nations see this as a bizarre carryover from savage tribes promoting militarism. Since young men spend several months or perhaps years in unpaid service as unfree subjects while young women can at the same time study, work, establish families, and find their niche in society, conscription is more and more considered as an unfair and sexist institution that punishes boys for being born as males. Conscription certainly imposes on the freedom of the individual and although some conscripts feel that they benefited from the experience others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths.^[5]

Discipline problems

No army can work without discipline. The discipline can either arise from the esprit de corps motivation of the soldiers, or be imposed and pressed on the troops. Volunteers seldom have disciplinary problems, but people pressed into the service against their will have little other motivation to serve than personal survival. As motivation is based on coercion, the discipline in conscript armies is often harsh, and punishments severe.

Consequently, conscript armies are more likely to mutiny than all-volunteer forces, and can in extreme cases turn against their own, the Vlasov army being the ultimate example. Discipline problems become especially problematic when the ablest youth are forced to serve against their will under the authority of people they consider untalented, unfit, or simply because of unquestioned authority. This was seldom a problem in the period of Industrialism when only the upper social classes had access to higher education, but proved problematic in the Vietnam War when college students were conscripted to fight as privates under non-commissioned officers who seldom had any higher education. As the troops felt they were being led into danger by leaders less intelligent than themselves morale sank low, leading to an erosion of discipline, culminating in violence and even murders.

Avoiding conscription

Avoiding conscription is possible by a number of means, including obtaining the status of conscientious objector, evading the draft, or deserting the army once conscripted.

A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport firefighter, nurse, or telecommunications technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons—notably, the members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conflicts.

Not everyone who is conscripted is willing to go to war. In the United States, especially during the Vietnam Era, many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. Those with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a "Champagne unit." Many would avoid military service altogether through college deferments, by becoming fathers, feigning homosexuality, obtaining a medical clearance, or serving in various exempt jobs (teaching was one possibility). Others also left the country before being drafted.

Some conscripts who were registered for military service, nevertheless failed to arrive at induction and were listed as Absent Without Leave (AWOL). Others simply deserted while in uniform, or handed their weapons over to the enemy. During the Angolan War, the African National Congress (ANC) called for South African soldiers to desert.

Notes

↑ CNN, Rangel calls for mandatory military service. Retrieved July 21, 2007.
↑ In Finnish, Puolustusvoimat: Varusmieheksi 2006. Retrieved February 8, 2007.
↑ The Site of the Sentient, Slavery in the Modern United States? Retrieved June 28, 2007.
↑ FindLaw, ARVER v. U.S. , 245 U.S. 366 (1918). Retrieved June 28, 2007.
↑ BBC, France salutes end of military service. Retrieved September 29, 2006.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Flynn, George. 2001. Conscription and Democracy: The Draft in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Greenwood Press. ISBN 031331912X
Mjoset, Lars. 2002. The Comparative Study of Conscription in the Armed Forces. JAI Press. ISBN 0762308362
Moore, Albert. 1996. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1570031525
Sanborn, Joshua. Drafting the Russian Nation: Military Conscription, Total War, and Mass Politics, 1905-1925. Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0875803067
Zurcher, Erik. 1999. Arming the State: Military Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia, 1775-1925. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 186064404X

External links

All links retrieved March 20, 2017.

MedicalDraft.info—the medical draft ("Health Care Personnel Delivery System") in the USA
Refusing to bear arms: a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.
The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription: Information and links on the military draft issue.

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[1] CNN, Rangel calls for mandatory military service. Retrieved July 21, 2007.

[2] In Finnish, Puolustusvoimat: Varusmieheksi 2006. Retrieved February 8, 2007.

[3] The Site of the Sentient, Slavery in the Modern United States? Retrieved June 28, 2007.

[4] FindLaw, ARVER v. U.S. , 245 U.S. 366 (1918). Retrieved June 28, 2007.

[5] BBC, France salutes end of military service. Retrieved September 29, 2006.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Claimed}}
+{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}{{copyedited}}
 [[Category:Sociology]]
 [[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 [[Category:Law]]
+[[Military]]
+{{War}}
-{{War}}
+'''Conscription''' is a general term for involuntary [[labor]] demanded by some established authority, but it is most often used in the specific sense of [[government]] policies that require citizens (often just males) to serve in their [[military|armed forces]]. It is known by various names—for example, the conscription program in the [[United States]] was known colloquially as "the draft." Those who believe in a world of peace and harmony have suggested that involuntary labor of this sort is akin to [[slavery]].
-:''Conscript redirects here. For constructed script, visit [[constructed script]].''
+Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for [[war]]time and "crises" of supply. Others, regarding military service for a minimum time period to be the responsibility of every citizen, maintain the requirement. Arguments in favor of this system go beyond defense of the [[nation]], and include such benefits as providing a [[rite of passage]] into adulthood and citizenship, engendering [[community]]-building and camaraderie among peers, and promoting [[patriotism]].
-'''Conscription''' is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority, but it is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require citizens (often  just males) to serve in their [[military|armed forces]]. It is known by various names — for example, the most recent conscription program in the [[United States]] was known colloquially as "'''[[Conscription in the United States|the draft]]'''". Many nations do not ''maintain'' conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and "crises" of supply.
+{{toc}}
+While such outcomes may indeed be beneficial, both to the individuals and [[society]] as a whole, there are alternative methods of accomplishing them that do not involve training in the use of weapons of war, and the danger of patriotism that becomes intolerant of those from other nations. While it has been necessary in the past for nations to develop defense forces for the protection of their citizens, the establishment of a peaceful world requires that we be "conscripted" into training that breaks down the barriers between different nations and teaches all people to live in harmony.
-"Conscription" has also sometimes been used as a general term for non-military [[Involuntary servitude|involuntary labour]] demanded by some established authority; for example, some translators of [[Old Testament]] commentaries use the term to describe the levies of labour used to build the [[Temple of Solomon]]. In [[Japan]] during [[World War II]], Japanese women and children were conscripted to work in factories.
+==Definition==
+'''Conscription''' is the act of forcing someone into [[military]] service. It derives from the more general term of involuntary [[labor]] demanded by an established authority. The word derives from the [[Latin]] ''conscriptionem,'' which refers to the gathering of troops by written orders, and ''conscribere,'' which means "to put a name on a list or roll, especially a list of soldiers." A person who becomes a member of the armed forces through the process of conscription is called a conscript.
 Referring to forced service in the armed forces, the term "conscription" has two main meanings:
+* Forced service, usually of young men of a given age, such as 17–18 years, for a set period of time, commonly 1–2 years. In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Singapore]], this was commonly known as "national service;" in [[New Zealand]], "compulsory military training" and later national service; in [[Norway]], Safeguard Duty or 1st time service.
+* Forced service, for an indefinite period of time, in the context of a widespread [[mobilization]] of forces for fighting [[war]], including on the home territory, usually imposed on men in a much wider age group (such as 18–45). This was referred to in the United States during the [[Vietnam War]] as "the draft;" in the United Kingdom this was commonly known as "call-up."
-* forced service, usually of young men of a given age, e.g. 17 – 18, for a set period of time, commonly 1 – 2 years. (In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Singapore]] this was commonly known as '''"national service"'''; in [[New Zealand]], at first [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)|compulsory military training]] and later [[national service]]); in [[Norway]], Safeguard Duty / 1st time service.
+Strictly speaking, "the draft" is the process by which individuals are chosen for conscription; conscription being the actual compulsory induction of individuals into the armed services.
-* forced service, for an indefinite period of time, in the context of a widespread [[mobilisation]] of forces for fighting war, including on the home territory, usually imposed on men in a much wider age group (e.g. 18 – 45). (In the United Kingdom this was commonly known as '''"call-up"''').
-The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the [[Selective Service System]] or the [[Selective Service Initiative]] announced in [[2004]]).
+The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectees" in the United States (from the [[Selective Service System]] or the [[Selective Service Initiative]] announced in 2004). This differentiates those who have volunteered for service, known as "enlisted" in the United States, in roles other than as [[commissioned officer]]s.
-In the [[United States|U.S.]] the term "enlisted" is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as [[commissioned officers]].
+Conscription typically involves individuals who are deemed fit for military service. At times, however, governments have instituted universal military service, in which all men or all people of a certain age are conscripted.
 ==History==
-===Invention of modern conscription===
+Required service in the military has existed since ancient times, including warriors in the [[Aztec Empire]], citizen militiamen in [[ancient Greece]], and the [[Roman Empire]]. Many countries in [[medieval]] [[Europe]] used a similar system to develop their military forces.
-Modern conscription was invented during the [[French Revolution]], allowing the [[French Republic|Republic]] to defend itself from European monarchies' attacks. Deputy [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]] gave its name to the [[September 5]], [[1798]] Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the [[patriotism|nation]]." It enabled the creation of the ''[[Grande Armée]]'', what [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] called "the [[nation in arms]]", which successfully battled European professional armies.
-According to philosopher [[Michel Foucault]], conscription is one of the forms taken by "[[disciplinary institution]]s", along with hospitals, schools and prisons. [[Louis Althusser]] has also underlined how [[Machiavelli]] was one of the first modern theorists to think the relationship between conscription and the creation of a nation, or successfully bolstering [[patriotism]]. Machiavelli despised the use of [[mercenaries]] and professional armies, which at this time were ravaging the divided Italian states.
-When the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during [[World War I]], bitter disputes broke out in [[Canada]] (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]]), [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] (See [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)|Compulsory Military Training]]) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during [[World War II]] (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]]). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the [[Vietnam War]] occurred in several countries in the late [[1960s]]. (See also: [[Conscription Crisis]])
-In the United States, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future. Also, United States has a considerable nuclear weapons arsenal, and relies on [[nuclear deterrent]]. Several developed nations, however, do not rely on nuclear deterrent and maintain conscription.
-==Gender issue==
-Some countries that draft women include [[North Korea]], [[Peru]], [[Libya]], [[Israel]], and [[Eritrea]]. In [[2002]], [[Sweden]]'s government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Some have considered the practice of excluding women from the draft unfair, because they feel it goes against principles of [[social equality|equality]]. Some simply argue that women can be militarily useful, and that excluding them places an unnecessary limit on resources. During World War II, women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the [[Soviet Union]]. The United States came close to drafting women into the [[Nurse Corps]] in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan; the Japanese surrender made this unnecessary.
-The non-[[egalitarian]] policy practiced by some countries of drafting men and not women has often been a flash point and source of conflict. This policy is often cited by some [[masculism|masculists]] as an example of an unfair policy, which benefits women over men. [[Gender egalitarians]] point out that, in the long run, such a policy supports social thinking about women as weaker and less able beings, and is therefore not really an overall benefit to women - more of a double edged sword (or golden chain). Apprehension about the possible conscription of women was a key factor that led to the defeat of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] in the United States. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-In 1981 in the United States, several men filed lawsuit in the case ''[[Rostker v. Goldberg]]'', alleging that the [[Military Selective Service Act]] violates the [[Due Process Clause]] of the [[Fifth Amendment]] by requiring that men only and not also women register with the SSS. The [[Supreme Court]] eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0453_0057_ZS.html Rostker v. Goldberg], Cornell Law School, retrieved 26 Dec. 2006.</ref>
-Conscription certainly imposes on the freedom of the individual and although some conscripts feel that they benefited from the experience others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1682777.stm France salutes end of military service]", BBC News, November 29, 2001. Retrieved 29 September 2006.</ref> Individual resentment may also be compounded by the typically low wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as [[Greece]], [[Finland]] and [[Singapore]]. While it is frequently pointed out that [[feminists]] and others calling for more equal treatment of women in society have rarely extended their demands to include equality for women regarding the draft, it should be noted that many such persons are also opposed to war in general.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-==Conscientious objection==
-{{main|Conscientious objection|Antimilitarism|Conscientious objection throughout the world}}
-A [[conscientious objector]] is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with [[Armed forces|military service]], or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, [[Sweden]] allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport [[fireman]], [[nurse]] or [[telecommunications]] technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons &mdash; notably, the members of the [[Peace churches|historic peace churches]] are [[pacifism|pacifist]] by doctrine, and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe [[Christianity|Christians]] should be neutral in worldly conflicts.
-==Draft evaders==
-Not everyone who is conscripted is willing to go to war. In the United States, especially during the Vietnam Era, many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. Those with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a [[Champagne unit]].
-Many would avoid military service altogether through college deferments, by becoming fathers, or serving in various exempt jobs (teaching was one possibility). Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors, although they might then be drafted for non-combat work, such as serving as a [[combat medic]]. It was also possible they could be asked to do similar civilian work, such as being a hospital orderly.
-It was, in fact, quite easy for those with some knowledge of the system to avoid being drafted. A simple route, widely publicized, was to get a medical rejection. While a person could claim to have symptoms (or feign [[homosexuality]]), if enough physicians sent letters that a person had a problem, he might well be rejected. It often wasn't worth the Army's time to dispute this claim. Such an approach worked best in a larger city where there was no stigma to not serving, and the potential draftee was not known to those reviewing him.
-A scene in the film [[Alice's Restaurant]] accurately captures the chaotic situation in the lower [[Manhattan]] draft center where people slipped through the cracks. In this case, a person was rejected for a criminal record (littering), but people probably evaded for less. Conversely it was the poor and uneducated who were often swept up without any understanding of how to escape the system.
-For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way were known as "[[draft-dodger]]s". Particularly during the Vietnam War, U.S. draft-dodgers usually made their way to [[Canada]], [[Mexico]] or [[Switzerland]].
-Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts. In the late years of the war, objections against it and support for draft-dodgers was much more outspoken, because of the casualties suffered by American troops, and the actual cause and purpose of the war being heavily questioned.
-Toward the end of the U.S. draft an attempt was made to make the system somewhat fairer by turning it into a lottery, with each of the year's calendar dates randomly assigned a number. Men born on lower numbered dates were called up for review. For the reasons given above, this did not make the system any fairer, and the entire system ended in 1973. Today, American men 18-25 are required to register with the government, but there has not been a callup since the Vietnam Era.
-==Draft resisters==
-{{main|Antimilitarism}}
-Historically, there has been resistance to conscription in almost every country and situation where it has been imposed. In the USA and some other countries, the [[Vietnam War]] saw new levels of opposition to conscription and the [[Selective Service System]]. Many people opposed to and facing conscription chose to either apply for classification and assignment to civilian alternative service or noncombatant service within the military as conscientious objectors, or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like [[Muhammad Ali]], chose to resist the draft by publicly and politically fighting conscription. Some people resist at the point of registration for the draft [http://www.resisters.info/] . In the USA since 1980, for example, the draft resistance movement has focused on mandatory draft registration. [http://www.resisters.info/prosecutions.html] [http://www.resisters.info/nojoke.html] Others resist at the point of induction, when they are ordered to put on a uniform, when they are ordered to carry or use a weapon, when they are ordered into combat, or when they are ordered to commit what they believe to be war crimes or atrocities.
-There are those who are immune to the draft.  These people include anyone who works for the government (Teachers, police officers, lawmakers, etc), People who work for government contractors, and those who work in jobs essential to the operation of the country (waste management, power plants, etc).
-A government can also grant an exemption from conscription to a group of people based upon religious grounds. One instance is the Amish people in the United States who are immune from any military callup and do not have to register for selective service.
-==Deserters==
-Some conscripts who were registered for military service, nevertheless failed to arrive at induction and were listed as Absent Without Leave (AWOL). Others simply deserted while in uniform, or handed their weapons over to the enemy. During the [[Opposition to the Angolan War|Angolan War]], the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) called for South African soldiers to desert.
-==Countries with mandatory military service==
-:''See: [[Military service]]''
-Small countries often have mandatory military service, citing the inability to form a professional army of sufficient size. [[Neutral country|Neutral countries]], in particular, institute conscription to organize an independent defense, that is, to eliminate the need for foreign support.
-Communist countries, particularly the Soviet Union and its satellites, used conscription. The tradition continues in Russia and in numerous other countries formed in the collapse of Soviet Union.
-==Countries without mandatory military service==
-:''See: [[Military service]]''
-Large countries are able to create large professional armies. Possession of [[nuclear weapons]] also enables the country to use [[nuclear deterrent]] instead of a large regular army as the mainstay of defence. An alliance with the United States, i.e. a [[NATO]] membership, provides a [[nuclear umbrella]] that also allows a country to eschew large-scale conscription.
-==Arguments for conscription==
-===Valuable training===
-Some communitarians argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, wilderness survival and so on. However, it can also be argued that these skills could better be taught in the public school system than during mandatory service.
-===Rite of passage===
-In many countries, conscription serves as a [[rite of passage]]. The prospective man is tested, to see whether or not he can endure the hardships of military training and earn the right to be called a man. Military service, in countries that have it, may then be seen as the test of manhood. Conscription may inspire camaraderie, unifying a people: all able-bodied males together as a union have had the same experience and are soldiers, and that may create unity and team spirit within a nation. This idealism is often seen as [[sexism|sexist]], [[militarism|militaristic]] or discriminating against [[conscientious objector]]s. On the other hand, conscription is considered by some as a useful tool in inspiring a national spirit.
-A good example of this is Finland, where having acquired a reserve military rank is considered by some people a valuable asset for a manager position in civilian work, carrying prestige comparable to education, work experience or recommendations. On the other hand, many employers in Finland don't care at all about former military training (or lack of thereof) of a job applicant or an employee, and military training is almost never a requirement to a job. Almost all Finnish managers are either reserve non-commissioned officers or reserve officers (see [[management by perkele]]). It is unclear however if persons with best management abilities are selected to be trained as officers or if management skills useful in the civilian world are learned in the training.
-===Draft as protection against democracy-destroying military coups===
-Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. A professional army can possibly become a dangerous state-within-a-state. Military [[virtue]]s such as obedience to orders and respect for the chain of command can possibly be abused by aspiring [[dictator]]s. Armed forces can attract — consciously or unconsciously — people who prefer [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] systems. The army can even become the only chance for a job and decent life in times of unemployment (this was crucial in the rise of [[Japanese militarism]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}), or for despised minorities. Such people may come to regard the army as their home and elevate it above the state.
-On the other hand, once in power dictators such as [[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], and [[Saddam Hussein]] have used conscription to drive their undemocratic ambitions. The most significant [[July 20 Plot|attempt on Hitler's life]] was from the professional component of his military.
-===Manpower===
-Small countries have several options to raise a sizeable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how [[Switzerland]] managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. The [[Swiss]] militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the [[halberd]]) were quickly adopted by their enemies. This in turn made the Swiss very popular as mercenaries; many rulers even raised [[Swiss Guard]]s. The rich [[Flanders (county)|Flemish]] trade cities of the early [[14th century]] raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] ([[1302]]) is a good example.
-Other options for national defense include membership in a military alliance like [[NATO]], as is the case for countries like [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]]. Switzerland started out as a military alliance between independent cantons. However, the membership in such alliance decreases the independence of a country, making it dependent on its stronger allies. Several [[NATO]] members maintain conscription, so an alliance is not complementary with conscription.
-Also, a wealthy small country could hire a professional [[mercenary]] army. This approach does, however, require wealth and men who are willing to hire on. Moreover, it required some means to control the mercenaries if they became unruly.
-However, conscription creates numbers but not quality. [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s attempts to raise a conscript army in [[Milan]] ended in catastrophe; the conscripts did not have adequate training or experience, and were awkward to perform drill and maneuver. If the conscript army is trained only during the crisis, the limits on time and resources on training enable only rudimentary training; anything else is to be learnt on the battlefield. However, this can be avoided by peace-time conscription to train a large reserve usable in a crisis. The quality of the reserve must be maintained by steady refresher exercises. In several countries where conscription is in use, the length (and quality) of the training is virtually similar to that of professional armies.
+In [[Scandinavia]], the institution known as ''Leidang'' was a public levy of free farmers that were organized into a coastal fleet for the purpose of defense, coerced [[trade]], plunderings, and aggressive [[war]]s. Normally, the fleet levy was on expeditions for two or three summer months. All free men, namely the [[peasant]]s, were obliged to take part in or contribute to the ''Leidang,'' and all ''Leidang'' were called to arms when invading forces threatened the land.
-The losses to conscript armies on the battlefield are often large, but waste of manpower is limited by the fact that the supply of able-bodied males in a nation is not inexhaustible{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. In addition, any government waging a prolonged war with conscripts will risk losing popular support and following loss of power{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. For a democratic government, this limits the use of conscript forces for wars that are fights for existence. Pursuing national interests or [[expeditionary war]]s may still necessitate a large professional army.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
+In [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[England]], compulsory military service was employed on the local level in the [[fyrd]], a [[militia]] of all able-bodied men that was called up from the districts threatened with attack. The system was developed by [[Alfred the Great]] in the ninth century. Service in the fyrd was usually of short duration and the participants were obliged to provide their own arms and provisions.
-===Personnel diversity===
+[[Corvée]] [[labor]] was an administrative practice primarily found in [[feudalism|feudal]] societies, a type of annual [[tax]] payable as labor by the [[serf]] to the [[monarch]], [[vassal]], [[overlord]], or [[manorialism|lord of the manor]]. In addition to being used to complete royal projects, to maintain roads and other public facilities, and to provide labor to maintain the feudal estate, it was also used to conscript men into the military. The corvée was abolished in France on August 4, 1789, shortly after the beginning of the [[French Revolution]], along with a number of other feudal privileges accorded to French landlords. From that time, most countries restricted corvée labor to military conscription and [[prison labor]].
-Perhaps the kind of people who most strongly want to be in the military are not always the only kind of people who are needed in it. Conscripts come from various backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is arguably more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the frequently lower morale and experience of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations. This has been witnessed in the [[Vietnam War]] and [[Soviet-Afghan War]].
-Personnel diversity might be bad for armies in some ways, by inhibiting communication and increasing social tension, but it also helps different people come together and realize the true nature of an all-inclusive society. For example, it helps them understand the problems of other classes, professions, cultures, and educational levels. Similar arguments have been presented in favor of [[desegregation]] in schools. However, in countries that already have desegregated schools (i.e. most of the western world) it is not clear why the armed forces would be more important in bringing different people together than the school system, or could accomplish this in ways in which the school system could not.
+In the sixteenth century, [[Machiavelli]], in his discussion of ''The Art of War,'' proposed that states should develop citizen militias, which would be much more reliable than the untrustworthy [[mercenary]] soldiers. Machiavelli despised the use of mercenaries and professional armies, which at this time were ravaging the divided Italian states. He argued that every able-bodied man in a nation was a potential soldier and could by means of conscription be required to serve in the armed forces. He recognized the connection between conscription and the creation of a [[nation]], successfully bolstering [[patriotism]].
-===Conscript quality===
+Most governments have used conscription at some time, usually when the voluntary enlistment of soldiers failed to meet military needs. Conscription by national governments became widespread in Europe during the nineteenth century.
-The manpower quality of a conscript force is considered poor in many countries. However, in some countries with conscription, the personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength. Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority and can be discharged for medical reasons in extreme cases.
-However, the conscript force may also receive the best of the youth, who would never join a professional army. Many conscripts are from such social strata that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior NCO and commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller. As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime.<ref>[http://www.mil.fi/perustietoa/julkaisut/varusmies_07_suomi/johtajakoulutus/index.html Puolustusvoimat: Varusmieheksi 2006.] Retrieved 2/8/2007. ''In Finnish''</ref><ref>[http://www.mil.fi/puolustusvoimainkomentaja/2408.dsp Kaskeala, J. (2006) Vaikka puolustusvoimat supistuu, tarvitsemme yleisen asevelvollisuuden.] Retrieved 2/9/2007. ''In Finnish''</ref> The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces. The [[Israeli Defence Forces]] are based on conscription and its excellent performance is often explained by the quality of the manpower. However, as the tour of duty is three years, and as the nation lives in continuous threat of war, the military training is very thorough and can well be compared to that of the all-volunteer professional armies.
+===Origins of modern conscription===
+Modern conscription was invented during the [[French Revolution]], allowing the [[French Republic|Republic]] to defend itself from European monarchies' attacks. Deputy [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]] gave its name to the September 5, 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the [[patriotism|nation]]." It enabled the creation of the ''[[Grande Armée]],'' what [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] called "the [[nation in arms]]," which successfully battled European professional armies.
-The worst problem is however that the training must be designed by the physical fitness and the learning ability of the least able of the youth. However, this can be at least partly avoided by differentiating the conscript training. Even the least able can usually fulfill important roles in relatively easy logistics duties, while the most able can be trained quite well as specialists.<ref>[http://www.mil.fi/maavoimat/joukot/tykpr/erik_palv.html Tykistöprikaati: Erikoispalvelutehtävät] Retrieved 2/8/2007. ''In Finnish''</ref>
+The sending of conscripts to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation has been highly contentious in democracies. For instance, during [[World War I]], bitter disputes broke out in [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]] over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during [[World War II]]. Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the [[Vietnam War]] occurred in several countries in the late 1960s.
-In many cases the conscript servicemates may have social or societal problems, they may be [[Crime|criminal]]s, [[bullying|bullies]] or [[drug abuse]]rs, or they may even be [[sociopathy|sociopaths]]. Allowing such persons to serve is problematic. They may corrode the capability of the unit, even endangering the safety of the others.  Some countries have recognized this problem, and attempt to exclude the potential troublemakers even before they get to serve, using medical discharges, for example.<ref>http://www.turunsanomat.fi/kotimaa/?ts=1,3:1002:0:0,4:2:0:1:2006-08-26,104:2:400747,1:0:0:0:0:0: ''Varusmieskoulutuksen kevennetty alku säästää paukkuja loppusotaan''. Turun Sanomat 26.8.2006. ''In Finnish'']</ref> On the other hand, in some countries (like in Russia) the problems with this issue are extremely dire (see [[dedovschina]]). There is also the argument that if the problem can be classified as [[juvenile delinquency]], then the military functions as a "men's school". By giving responsibility, [[youth development]] is induced, and adolescent-typical criminal behavior ceases. The problem is that the [[coercion]] type environment of conscription armies rather encourage to avoid responsibility than accepting it, being more likely to promote such antisocial behaviour than to discourage it.
-===Total war===
+[[Communism|Communist]] countries, particularly the [[Soviet Union]] and its satellites, used conscription. The tradition continued in Russia and in numerous other countries formed in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.
-[[Total war]] means harnessing all the nation for warfare. In that viewpoint, the citizens exist solely to support the nation, and citizens are nothing but resource supplies for the nation's war machinery. Peace can be seen as nothing short of preparation period for new war and repairing the damage and re-arming the armed forces. The conscription can be seen as the natural way to relate on men's role for the society: each and every able-bodied male is first and foremost a soldier and only secondarily a citizen.
-This world view was quite common in the [[Western world]] from 1855 to 1945 (from [[Crimean War]] to the end of [[World War II]]). Some even consider that most European states were ''armies who had their own nations''. While this view led into [[militarism]] and immense carnage and slaughter in both World Wars, it also created the [[civil society]]. Conscription was also seen as "school of men," which gives the young men the essential social and societal skills.
+===Today===
+Small countries often have mandatory military service, citing the inability to form a professional army of sufficient size. [[Israel]] is a small nation that maintains its Israeli Defense Force through conscription, deemed essential as a result of the various threats facing it in the [[Middle East]]. [[Neutral country|Neutral countries]], in particular, institute conscription to organize an independent defense, that is, to eliminate the need for foreign support.
-The sensibility of the total war viewpoint can be questionized today. While the [[industrialization]] created new means of production and factories to supply the armies with new weapons and machinery, the civilian population and the factories also contributed a viable target for bombing and warring on civilians as means of [[indirect approach]]. On the other hand, the [[globalisation]] has led in rapid [[deindustrialization]] of productive industry in the First World countries, leaving the societies devoid from means of production of the essentials (which can be produced at cheaper cost in underdeveloped countries). While this makes sense in the peacetime, First World countries are today in extremely precarious situation on self-sustenance and cannot stand a prolonged war. In that respect it makes also no sense to arm the whole nation and prepare for years of conflict, but rather to create small professional forces, which are quick to react and have light logistics, and which can run a decisive campaign in short period of time instead of getting stuck on years of [[war of attrition]], which has no winners.
+Large countries are able to create large professional armies. Possession of [[nuclear weapon]]s also enables the country to use nuclear deterrent instead of a large regular army as the mainstay of defense. An alliance with others, such as a [[NATO]] membership, may also provide a "[[nuclear umbrella]]" that also allows a country to eschew large-scale conscription.
-===Political and moral motives===
+In the United States, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, made the government unwilling to consider mass conscription. Also, the United States has a considerable [[nuclear weapon]]s arsenal, and relies on [[nuclear deterrent]]. Nevertheless, the possibility and value of conscription as a deterrent to acts of war has been suggested on occasion.<ref>CNN, [http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/12/29/mandatory.military/ Rangel calls for mandatory military service.] Retrieved July 21, 2007.</ref> Several developed nations, however, do not rely on nuclear deterrent and maintain conscription.
-[[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] argued vehemently against professional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business to professionals. He based this view on the development of the [[Roman republic]], which came to an end at the same time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force. The change to a professional force itself was a result of economic forces that Rousseau did not consider.
-Some [[ideology|ideologies]] and cultures, especially in the East, and those based on [[collectivism]] or [[statism]], value the society and common good above the life of an individual. Just as cells form a body, the humans form a society, and the interest of the society overcomes the interests of the individual, including his freedom and human rights; cells must die that the human body can live. Those ideologies and world-views justify the state to force its members to protect itself and risk their lives and limbs for the common good. In states based on society-centered ideologies, world-views and religions, conscription is the natural way of raising the army. Able-bodied males are an essential part of the national war machinery for total war,
+==Controversy==
+===Arguments for conscription===
+The main arguments in favor of conscription normally center on [[Conscription#Rites of passage|rites of passage]], [[Conscription#Manpower|manpower]] requirements, and improving [[Conscription#Quality|quality]].
-In the era of [[total war]], the conscription is the only alternative for a small nation to build an army of credible strength without depending on alliances. This is particularly the case when the opposing state is significantly larger. In such a case, a voluntary force could not, regardless of its quality, stand against the sheer numbers of the opposing force. Israel, surrounded by much more numerous Arab nations, is a classic example of this situation.
+====Rites of passage====
+In many countries, conscription serves as a [[rite of passage]]. The prospective man is tested to see whether or not he can endure the hardships of military training and earn the right to be called a man. Military service, in countries that have it, may then be seen as the test of manhood. Conscription may inspire camaraderie, unifying a people: All able-bodied males together as a union have had the same experience and are soldiers, and that may create unity and team spirit within a nation. Some communitarians argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching the general population basic survival skills such as [[first aid]], [[swimming]], wilderness survival, and so on.
-The right of the state to conscript its citizens can be founded on [[Utilitarian]]ist principles. Utilitarianism states that the army must never be used for a war of aggression but only to preserve the state. It also states that the occupation by a foreign country would include unbearable conditions, such as [[genocide]] or destruction of the local way of life. If these two requirements are fulfilled, the greatest good to the greatest number of people may be achieved by sacrificing a number of people and thus, these people, the reservists serving in the armed forces, should be willing to make this sacrifice out of altruism. In fact, even without accepting this, the moderate (1 – 10%) chance of dying compared to the prospect of living in an occupied country may be preferable. This view again assumes the individuals exist for the state and not that the state exists for its citizens' sake.
+Some [[ideology|ideologies]] and cultures, especially in the East, and those based on [[collectivism]] or [[statism]], value the [[society]] and common good above the life of an individual. Just as [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s form a body, people form a society, and the interest of the society overcomes the interests of the individual, including his freedom and [[human rights]]; cells must die so that the human body can live. Those ideologies and world-views justify the state to force its members to protect itself and risk their lives and limbs for the common good. In states based on society-centered ideologies, world-views, and [[religion]]s, conscription is the natural way of raising the army.
-Conscription can give the conscripts a lasting patriotic view and readiness to die for the good of the whole. Such readiness should, according to many world-views (e.g. classic nationalism), be present in a virtuous citizen at all times, but through training, the readiness becomes a grim reality, not rhetoric. This may decrease the admiration of the military, but may also promote militarism and lead into readiness to use violence in everyday life to solve marital etc problems. On the other hand, the fact that every person understands that a war — any war — means that they themselves, friends, and relatives will be dying or at the least, facing mortal danger, decreases the willingness to enter an armed conflict. In practice, engaging a conscript force in an aggressive war for a prolonged period results in morale degradation both at home and on the front, testified by [[Afghanistan War|Afghanistan]] and [[Vietnam War]]s. On the other hand, a professional army is usually composed mainly of the members of lower classes, making prolonged offensive wars easier.
+====Manpower====
+Small countries have several options to raise a sizable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how [[Switzerland]] managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. The Swiss [[militia]]s were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the [[halberd]]) were quickly adopted by their enemies. This in turn made the Swiss very popular as [[mercenary|mercenaries]]; many rulers even raised [[Swiss Guard]]s. The rich [[Flanders (county)|Flemish]] trade cities of the early fourteenth century raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] (1302) is a good example.
-===Economics===
+Conscription becomes necessary in a [[total war]]. Total war means harnessing the entire nation for warfare. In that viewpoint, the citizens exist solely to support the nation, and citizens are nothing but resource supplies for the nation's war machinery. The conscription can be seen as the natural way to rely on man's role for the society: Each and every able-bodied male is first and foremost a soldier and only secondarily a citizen. In the extreme, peace can be seen as nothing short of preparation period for new war and repairing the damage and re-arming the armed forces.
-In a very large war, (such as [[World War Two]]) raising a large enough volunteer military would require dramatic increases in taxes or budget deficits. In such cases conscription can have lower negative impact than the impact of these higher taxes and possibly be more equitable. (Higher taxes would penalize those out of service much more than those in service.) Research into fiscal impacts of conscription in [[World War Two]] suggest a volunteer army raised to the same size would have had worse economic impact in terms of economic growth.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-It is estimated by the British military<ref>Gustav Hägglund, Leijona ja kyyhky.</ref> that in a professional military, one company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained conscript reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.
+====Quality====
+The personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength. Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority and in extreme cases can be discharged for medical reasons. The conscript force may also receive the best of the youth, who would never join a professional army.
-==Arguments against conscription==
+Many conscripts are from such [[social status|social strata]] that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior and commissioned and non-commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller. As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding to their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime.<ref>''In Finnish,'' [http://www.mil.fi/perustietoa/julkaisut/varusmies_07_suomi/johtajakoulutus/index.html Puolustusvoimat: Varusmieheksi 2006.] Retrieved February 8, 2007.</ref> The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces. The [[Israeli Defense Forces]] are based on conscription and its excellent performance is often explained by the quality of the manpower.
-{{Unreferenced|date=December 2006}}
+Conscripts come from various backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is arguably more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the frequently lower morale and experience of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations. This was witnessed in the [[Vietnam War]] and [[Soviet-Afghan War]].
-===Universal Declaration of Human Rights===
-Many arguments opposed to conscription, or opposed to gender-discriminated conscription, arise from its violation of the principles of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] of the [[United Nations]]. In particular:
-* Art.1: ''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. (…)''
-* Art.2: ''Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as (…) sex (…)''
-* Art.3: ''Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.''
-* Art.4: ''No one shall be held in (…) servitude (…)''
-* Art.13: ''(1)Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.''
-* Art.20: ''(…) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.''
-* Art.23: ''Everyone has the right (…) to free choice of employment (…)''
-In addition, many Constitutions do provide similar rights in Countries where there is or has been some form of conscription after [[World War II]] or that maintain a possibility of conscription in time of war.
+===Arguments against conscription===
+Arguments against conscription focus on issues of [[Conscription#Slavery|slavery]], [[Conscription#Discrimination|discrimination]], and [[Conscription#Discipline problems|discipline problems]].
-===Slavery===
+====Slavery====
-:''Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence''
+:''Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence''&mdash;[[Albert Einstein]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[H.G. Wells]], [[Bertrand Russell]], and [[Thomas Mann]] in ''[http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth—1930]''
-: &mdash; [[Albert Einstein]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[H.G. Wells]], [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Thomas Mann]] in [http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth — 1930]
-Some groups, such as [[libertarians]], say that the draft constitutes [[slavery]], since it is mandatory work[http://www.ButNowYouKnow.com/the.draft.html]. Under the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or other involuntary servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see the draft as ''[[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]]'' (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. In 1918, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that the [[World War I]] draft did not violate the [[United States Constitution]]. ''Arver v. United States'', 245 U.S. 366 (1918) ([http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=245&invol=366]). The Court detailed its conclusion that the limited powers of the federal government included conscription. Its only statement on the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] issue was based on a "supreme and noble duty" argument from nationalism and not legal reasoning:
+Some groups, such as [[libertarian]]s, say that conscription constitutes [[slavery]], since it is mandatory work.<ref>The Site of the Sentient, [http://www.ButNowYouKnow.com/the.draft.html Slavery in the Modern United States?] Retrieved June 28, 2007.</ref> Under the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or other involuntary servitude is not allowed unless it is part of [[punishment]] for a [[crime]]. They therefore see conscription as [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]] (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. Nonetheless, in 1918, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that the [[World War I]] draft did not violate the [[United States Constitution]].<ref>FindLaw, [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=245&invol=366 ARVER v. U.S. , 245 U.S. 366 (1918).] Retrieved June 28, 2007.</ref>
-:Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people can be said to be the imposition of [[involuntary servitude]] in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.
 Conscription even ends up mirroring many of the infamous traits of chattel slavery in the American South; one's life is in the hands of those giving orders, to be sacrificed at will, one can be severely punished, even imprisoned, beaten, or killed, for trying to escape. [[Capital punishment]] has been commonly used as means of maintaining [[morale]] and keeping [[discipline]] in conscription armies but is currently not used in contemporary Western countries with conscription in peacetime.
-In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service — usually digging up potatoes in the field with zero wage cost. This contributed to the lack of incentives for the Soviet planned economy system to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech.
+In the [[USSR]], most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for [[forced labor]] unrelated to actual military service—usually digging up [[potato]]es in the field at zero wage cost. This contributed to the lack of incentives for the Soviet planned economy system to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet [[agriculture]] remained low-tech. In [[Soviet-bloc]] [[Hungary]], more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of [[rifle]] training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons," which usually hand-built [[rail tracks]] "for free," and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce.
-In [[Soviet-bloc]] [[Hungary]], more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of [[rifle]] training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons," which usually hand-built [[rail tracks]] "for free", and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce.
+====Discrimination====
+Conscription is usually limited to young people, and the burden of conscription is almost never spread equally across all age groups. The youngest people considered qualified are usually conscripted first. Opponents of ageism, and advocates of youth liberation, argue that age-based military conscription is the most severe disparity on the basis of age of any government mandate on individuals. Even in countries with elected governments, conscripts are often too young to be allowed to vote or participate in decisions on whether to go to war or to impose or set policies for conscription. The [[Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which lowered the voting age to 18, was proposed and approved largely in response to criticism of conscription based on the unfairness of drafting men too young to be allowed to vote. But draft-age voters in the U.S. are still overwhelmingly outnumbered by voters considered to be too old to be conscripted.
-These are examples of "military" conscription used to obtain involuntary labour. They also illustrate one key theme of [[Adam Smith]] and other liberal economists: that liberty is the key method of social improvement. When compulsion takes the place of free markets and free labour the efficiency of the economy is reduced. Compulsion also means that the wages and working conditions of the workers is inferior. [[David Hume]] points out that this was illustrated by the [[impressment|press gang]]. The legalised abduction of citizens by the state makes for military inefficiency as well as economic inefficiency and a denial of Constitutional freedom. When labour is too cheap it will be wasted as other commodities are and this is one reason for the collapse of communism in the USSR.
+Traditionally, conscription has been limited to only the male population. Women and non-able-bodied males have been exempted from conscription. While many societies have traditionally considered conscription as a [[initiation rite|test of manhood]] and a [[rite of passage]] from boyhood into manhood—"making boys into men"—most modern nations see this as a bizarre carryover from savage tribes promoting [[militarism]]. Since young men spend several months or perhaps years in unpaid service as unfree subjects while young women can at the same time study, work, establish families, and find their niche in society, conscription is more and more considered as an unfair and [[sexism|sexist]] institution that punishes boys for being born as males. Conscription certainly imposes on the freedom of the individual and although some conscripts feel that they benefited from the experience others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths.<ref>BBC, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1682777.stm France salutes end of military service.] Retrieved September 29, 2006.</ref>
-===Ageism===
+====Discipline problems====
-Conscription is usually limited to young people, and the burden of conscription is almost never spread equally across all age groups. The youngest people considered qualified are usually conscripted first. Opponents of ageism, and advocates of youth liberation, argue that age-based military conscription is the most severe disparity on the basis of age of any government mandate on individuals. This argument is epitomized by the [[Phil Ochs]] song, "I Ain't Marching Any More": "It's always the old who lead us to the war; it's always the young who fall." Even in countries with elected governments, conscripts are often too young to be allowed to vote or participate in decisions on whether to go to war or to impose or set policies for conscription. The [[Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which lowered the voting age to 18, was proposed and approved largely in response to criticism of conscription based on the unfairness of drafting men too young to be allowed to vote. But draft-age voters in the USA are still overwhelmingly outnumbered by voters considered to be too old to be conscripted.
+No army can work without [[discipline]]. The discipline can either arise from the ''[[esprit de corps]]'' [[motivation]] of the soldiers, or be imposed and pressed on the troops. Volunteers seldom have disciplinary problems, but people pressed into the service against their will have little other motivation to serve than personal survival. As motivation is based on [[coercion]], the discipline in conscript armies is often harsh, and [[punishment]]s severe.
-===Sexism===
+Consequently, conscript armies are more likely to [[mutiny]] than all-volunteer forces, and can in extreme cases turn against their own, the [[Vlasov army]] being the ultimate example. Discipline problems become especially problematic when the ablest youth are forced to serve against their will under the authority of people they consider untalented, unfit, or simply because of unquestioned authority. This was seldom a problem in the period of [[Industrialism]] when only the upper [[social class]]es had access to [[higher education]], but proved problematic in the [[Vietnam War]] when college students were conscripted to fight as privates under non-commissioned officers who seldom had any higher education. As the troops felt they were being led into danger by leaders less intelligent than themselves morale sank low, leading to an erosion of discipline, culminating in violence and even murders.
-Traditionally conscription has been limited to only the male population. Women and non-able-bodied males have been exempted from conscription. While many societies have traditionally considered conscription as an [[initiation rite|test of manhood]] and a [[rite of passage]] from boyhood into manhood. "making boys into men", most modern nations see this as a bizarre carryover from savage tribes promoting [[militarism]]. Since young men spend several months or perhaps years in unpaid service as unfree subjects while young women can at the same time study, work, found families and find their niche in the society, conscription is more and more considered as an unfair and [[sexism|sexist]] institution whose sole intention is to punish boys for being born as males. Conscription is seen also signaling inequality; as men are required to risk their life and limb without any compensation while women aren't, it can be viewed as a signal the society values far more the lives of women than those of men, and men are just expendable. It should be recalled from above, however, that several countries (such as Finland or Sweden) allow female volunteers into their ranks, and [[Israel]] has compulsory conscription for both men and women (see [[Israel Defense Forces#Regular service|Israel Defense Forces]]). In some countries though conscription is closely linked to acquiring "citizenship", becoming a full member of society. It can be claimed that in this viewing, it is an unquestioned privilege that is only bestowed upon the male cohort of society and denied the other half; in the reality the responsibility is bestowed on only the male cohort of the society and the women are freeriders as they get exactly the same civil rights as men but without any service.
-===Discipline problems===
+==Avoiding conscription==
-No army can work without discipline. The discipline can either arise from the ''[[esprit de corps]]'', motivation of the soldiers or be imposed and pressed on the troops. Volunteers seldom have disciplinary problems, but people pressed in the service against their will have little other motivation to serve than personal survival. As motivation is based on [[coercion]], the discipline on conscript armies is often harsh, and punishments severe. [[Capital punishment]], usually by [[firing squad]], is used almost universally to maintain discipline on conscription armies during the wartime. Antony Beevor has estimated the executions covered some 1% to 5% of all conscript losses in WWII. This can be best summarized by statement of [[Leon Trotsky]]:
+Avoiding conscription is possible by a number of means, including obtaining the status of [[conscientious objector]], evading the draft, or deserting the army once conscripted.
-:An army cannot be built without reprisals. Masses of men cannot be led to death unless the army command has the death penalty in its arsenal. So long as those malicious tailless apes that are so proud of their technical achievements — the animals that we call men — will build armies and wage wars, the command will always be obliged to place the soldiers between the possible death in the front and the inevitable one in the rear.
+A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with [[Armed forces|military service]], or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, [[Sweden]] allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport [[firefighter]], [[nurse]], or [[telecommunications]] technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons&mdash;notably, the members of the [[Peace churches|historic peace churches]] are [[pacifism|pacifist]] by doctrine, and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe [[Christianity|Christians]] should be neutral in worldly conflicts.
-Consequently, conscript armies are more likely to mutiny than all-volunteer forces, and can in extreme cases turn against their own, the [[Vlasov army]] being the ultimate example.
+Not everyone who is conscripted is willing to go to war. In the United States, especially during the Vietnam Era, many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. Those with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a "Champagne unit." Many would avoid military service altogether through [[college]] deferments, by becoming fathers, feigning [[homosexuality]], obtaining a medical clearance, or serving in various exempt jobs ([[teaching]] was one possibility). Others also left the country before being drafted.
-Especially dire the discipline problems become when the ablest of the youth are forced to serve against their will under the authority of people they consider dumber or untalented or simply because of unquestioned authority. This was seldom a problem in the period of Industrialism when only the upper social classes had access for higher education, but proved problematic already in the [[Vietnam War]], when college students were conscripted to fight as privates under non-commissioned officers who seldom had any higher education. As the able boys felt they were being led into slaughter by leaders dumber than themselves, the morale sank very low, and led into erosion of discipline, culminating into murders and [[Frag (military)|fragging]] incidents. This problem could be avoided to some extent{{Fact|date=February 2007}} by giving the most able conscripts NCO or officer training, which was widely done in the US Army during World War II.
+Some conscripts who were registered for military service, nevertheless failed to arrive at induction and were listed as Absent Without Leave (AWOL). Others simply deserted while in uniform, or handed their weapons over to the enemy. During the [[Angolan War]], the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) called for [[South Africa]]n soldiers to desert.
-===Nationalism and promoting militarism===
+==Notes==
-The military draft is predicated on the assumption that nations have rights that supersede those of the individual. In the words of Einstein and Gandhi's ''Anti-Conscription Manifesto'', "The State which thinks itself entitled to force its citizens to go to war will never pay proper regard to the value and happiness of their lives in peace." The building of large conscript armies coincided with the rise of virulent [[nationalism]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, culminating into [[total war]] in [[World War II]] and seeing savagery and brutality in such scale not encountered since the Biblical times.
+<references/>
-In peacetime, conscription can create an atmosphere of [[militarism]] and [[bigotry]] in the society. Since each and every male has military training and has been subjected to military indoctrination, men also tend to reflect their thoughts in means of military. This also may promote [[chauvinism]], [[authoritarianism]] and societal and social [[violence]]. However, it could also cause the opposite. Many young men in countries with compulsory conscription develop a cynical stance about militarism because the mandatory nature of conscription creates low morale amongst soldiers. This is especially true in countries where nationalist feelings are weak to begin with, such as [[Austria]], [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]], or where conditions are brutal, such as in [[Russia]].
-Men who have had military training can also be more ready to use violence to solve human relations' conflicts than those who have not had.  As results, [[prisons]] are over-represented in some countries by men who have had military training. Conscription also may create an atmosphere of [[chauvinism]], [[sexism]] and [[discrimination]] against those men who haven't served in the armed forces.  For example finding a job may prove extremely difficult for the conscientious objectors.
-Draftees can object to being conscripted if they are [[separatism|separatists]] and do not want to support the armies of the state they oppose. On the other hand, some separatist fighters acquire their military skills in the army they will later fight against.
-===Justification for attacks on civilians===
-Conscription is a component of "[[total war]]", and can also be used as an example of established policy to justify a government's demand that other sacrifices be required of civilians. Once a draft is allowed, Justice [[Louis Brandeis]] argued, "all bets are off". Arguably this results in a blurring of the moral distinction between civilians and the military as legitimate military targets, leading to attacks on civilians. Examples would include the indiscriminate bombing of cities conducted by both sides during [[World War II]], or the assertion by terrorist groups that civilians are legitimate targets (as currently occurs in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]).
-===Quality===
-One of the objections raised is a conscripted force would be of lower quality than a volunteer army. First, short periods of service do not allow for much skill building. Second, there is a possibility of a morale drop in units with conscripts, leading to a reduction in quality as officers and NCOs work to alleviate those problems.
-The biggest problem is that the pace of training has to be adjusted to the level of the lowest quality manpower. Combined with the short tour of duty, this renders the skills of the conscripts very low. Certain individuals with poor military and social skills may prove [[loose cannon]]s in wartime, proving more a liability than an asset to the unit and perhaps risking the destruction of the whole unit. Therefore the [[elite]] units of all armies, which have conscription, are composed entirely of selected volunteers, such as [[paratroops|Parachute Rangers]] in the Finnish army.
-Likewise, the military training of the conscripts is almost universally very rudimentary. It seldom goes beyond [[parade (military)|drill]], [[shooting]] practise, rudimentary specialization on one's service branch and weapons (rifles, artillery, grenade launchers, missiles, mines and explosives etc) and basic battlefield training. For example, the Argentinian military service was known as ''la colimba''; the word colimba is a composite word made from the initial syllables of the verbs ''co''rrer (to run), ''lim''piar (to clean) and ''ba''rrer (to sweep), as it was perceived that all a conscript did during service was running, cleaning and sweeping. Conscripts themselves were known and referred to as "colimbas". Likewise, many nations have used conscripts simply as unfree costless work force, organized as "work battalions" for agriculture and building infrastructure instead of decent military training.
-===Economics===
-{{Unreferenced|date=December 2006}}
-It can be argued that in a cost to benefit ratio conscription during peace time is not worthwhile. Months or years of service amongst the most fit subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit, if there ever were war conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in most countries where conscription is compulsory there is little threat of war in any case.
-The cost to particularly in times of military duress, such as the current U.S. conflict in Iraq, conscription serves as an instrument through which fresh soldiers may be readied when reserves and voluntary troops have been over utilized. These new troops ultimately provide more efficient use of U.S. economic resources since individuals plan for military involvement as a normal activity. Draft assignments, in contrast, disrupt everyday activity and lead to possibly greater economic shock.
-The conscription can also be related to the [[parable of the broken window]]. Military service can be related to any work. The costs of work do not disappear anywhere even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted; unwilling work force is extremely inefficient and the conscripts also lose their the costs of all-volunteer paid force. Especially dire this is in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Athe and unwieldy. Not only the work effort of the conscripts is wasted and productivity is lost, but they also are hard to replace on work force. every soldier conscripted in the army is away from his civilian work, and away from the economy making money with which the war is funded. This is not a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is universally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another, but proves extremely problematic in a post-industrial society where education is high and where work force is highly sophisticated; a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even direr the situation comes if the professional conscripted into amateur soldier gets killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity is irrevocably lost.
-==See also==
-* [[Antimilitarism]]
-* [[Arrière-ban]]
-* [[Bevin Boys]]
-* [[Conscientious objection]]
-* [[Corvée]]
-* [[Michel Foucault]]'s theory of "disciplinary institutions"
-* [[Impressment]] and the [[Quota System (Royal Navy)|Quota System]]
-* [[Indentured servant]]
-* [[Involuntary servitude]]
-* [[Levée en masse]]
-* [[Machiavelli]]'s thought on the superiority of conscription over mercenaries and professional armies.
-* [[Military]]
-* [[Military history]]
-* [[Military service]]
-* [[Military of Switzerland|Swiss Army]]
-* [[National Service]]
-* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau, Jean-Jacques]]
-* [[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]]
-* [[Military recruitment]]
-* [[Economic conscription]]
 ==References==
-<div class="references-small">
+* Flynn, George. 2001. ''Conscription and Democracy: The Draft in France, Great Britain, and the United States.'' Greenwood Press. ISBN 031331912X
-<references />
+* Mjoset, Lars. 2002. ''The Comparative Study of Conscription in the Armed Forces.'' JAI Press. ISBN 0762308362
-</div>
+* Moore, Albert. 1996. ''Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy.'' University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1570031525
+* Sanborn, Joshua. ''Drafting the Russian Nation: Military Conscription, Total War, and Mass Politics, 1905-1925.'' Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0875803067
+* Zurcher, Erik. 1999. ''Arming the State: Military Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia, 1775-1925.'' I.B. Tauris. ISBN 186064404X
 ==External links==
-{{wiktionary|conscription}}
+All links retrieved March 20, 2017.
-* [http://www.wri-irg.org War Resisters' International]
-* [http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/ Refusing to bear arms]: a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.
-* [http://home.snafu.de/mkgandhi/manifest.htm Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System, with an updated list of all signatories from 1993 to 2007].
-* Albert Einstein and Mahatma Gandhi. [http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System].
-* [http://www.warresisters.org War Resisters League (USA)]
-* [http://www.resisters.info Resisters.info — the draft, draft registration, and draft resistance in the USA]
-* [http://www.medicaldraft.info MedicalDraft.info — the medical draft ("Health Care Personnel Delivery System") in the USA]
-* [http://www.ButNowYouKnow.com/the.draft.html Is Conscription Slavery?]
-* [http://www.foodnotbombs.nl/pages/Slovakia.htm Campaign to Abolish Mandatory Military Service in Slovakia]
-* [http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/12/29/mandatory.military/ Rangel calls for mandatory military service]
-* [http://www.iosmms.org.tw/KUN_1.HTM The Association for Injured Officers And Soldiers of Mandatory Military Service, Republic of China]
-* [http://www.ebco-beoc.org The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection]
-* [http://www.omhroi.gr Campaign Against Conscription in Greece]
-* [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/canadawar/conscription_e.html Canadian Newspaper Archives - Conscription]
-* [http://h.webring.com/hub?ring=anticonscription Anti-Conscription Web Ring]
-* [http://www.historyguy.com/issues_draft.html The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription]: Information and links on the military draft issue.
-* [http://www.mothersagainstthedraft.org/content/view/214/150/ Mothers Against the Draft - list of countries with conscription]
+* [http://www.medicaldraft.info MedicalDraft.info—the medical draft ("Health Care Personnel Delivery System") in the USA]
+* [http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/ Refusing to bear arms]: a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.
+* [http://www.historyguy.com/issues_draft.html The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription]: Information and links on the military draft issue.
-{{Credits|Conscription|126601855|}}
+{{Credits|Conscription|126601855|Corvée|148416006}}