Difference between revisions of "Charles I of Austria" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Emperor Karl I of Austria-Hungary.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Karl I of Austria,<br>Károly IV. of Hungary,<br>]]
 
'''The Blessed Karl I''' (''Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen'') ([[17 August]] 1887 &ndash; [[1 April]] 1922) (''Hungarian'': '''Károly IV''' (''Károly Ferenc József'')) was (among other titles) the last [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]], the last [[Monarch|King]] of [[King of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[King of Bohemia|Bohemia]], and the last monarch of the [[Habsburg|Habsburg Dynasty]]. He reigned as Emperor Karl I of Austria and King Károly IV of Hungary from 1916 until 1918, when he renounced the government (but did not abdicate), and spent the remaining years of his life attempting to regain the throne until his death in 1922.  His name is sometimes anglicized as "Charles".
 
  
==Final Days of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire==
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[[Image:Emperor karl of austria-hungary 1917.png|right|250px|Emperor Charles I of Austria]]
  
===19th Century===
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'''The Blessed Charles I''' (''Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen''), (17 August, 1887 &ndash; 1 April, 1922) (''Hungarian'': '''Károly IV''' (''Károly Ferenc József'') was, among other titles, the last '''Emperor of Austria''', the last '''King of Hungary''', the final '''King of Bohemia''', and the last monarch of the [[Habsburg|Habsburg Dynasty]]. He reigned as '''Emperor Karl I of Austria''' and '''King Károly IV of Hungary''' from 1916 to 1918. He was a direct descendent of the rulers of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
The Habsburg Monarchy started showing the signs of decline in the 19th century, when Emperor Francis Joseph (1848–1916) lost control of Italy and Prussia, with the latter taken over by Germany. On top of this, Russia proved to be a challenger in the Balkans. In 1867 the Habsburgs redrew the boundaries of their lands to create the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. At the same time, the job of ruling the lands became increasingly more difficult with a plethora of nationalities vying for control of their countries amidst the absence of a unifying ideology that would keep them together. Hungarians, Germans, and Poles were the most vocal nationals. Besides, the Habsburgs were unable to meet the demands of the booming middle and industrial classes.
 
  
The restructuring of the monarchy spurred crises among the various Slav peoples within the monarchy. Czechs oscillated toward the Pan-Slav movement and held the [[Prague Slavic Congress, 1848|Congress of Slavs]] in July 1908 in Prague. On the day of the 60th anniversary of the accession to the throne of the widely unpopular Francis Joseph, the discontent and criticisms spilled into riots that prompted the imposition of martial law in Prague. In 1909 Prime Minister Baron von Bienerth made an attempt to appease the nationalities by including national representatives (Landsmannminister) in his Cabinet. The Germans, on the other hand, viewed the monarchy as an extension of German culture, while the Slavs aspired to save Austria for the sake of themselves, as they formed two-thirds of the population of Austria. However, the Poles' loyalty to the central government diluted the Slavic efforts at national representation, which thus crystallized into largely a Czech-German standoff, which polarized even political parties within Bohemia.
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At the end of [[World War I]], Charles was compelled to sign a withdrawal of power but refused to sign an abdication document, despite receiving threats. Convinced of the necessity of the monarchy, he sought to regain the throne until his death.
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Charles I had ascended to the throne at the age of 29 lacking sufficient experience to handle a monarchy on its last legs, with the many nationalities vying for independence and [[Germany|German]] [[nationalism]] on the rise. Historians vary in the assessment of his efforts, with some arguing that he was a benevolent man, even a saint, who exerted himself to halt the war that he had inherited, while others contend that he was weak and lacking in political skill. His determination to end the war culminated in what came to be known as the ''Sixtus debacle''; his attempt to negotiate peace in dealing directly with [[France]], a representative of the Allied Powers. In the end this in fact contributed to the dissolution of the monarchy. When the individual countries within the empire declared independence, aided by the Western world, the bell tolled for the Habsburg Monarchy and its last emperor.
  
==20th Century==
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Charles died at the age of 34 while in impoverished [[exile]] on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira]].
Since the Bosnian crisis of 1909, Austrian diplomats had been convinced that war with Serbia was bound to come. In February and October 1913, military action against Serbia was contemplated, but in both instances neither Italy nor Germany was willing to guarantee support. Austria-Hungary had to acquiesce in the territorial changes in the Balkan peninsula, changes that eliminated the Turks from Europe. By supporting Bulgaria against Serbia, Austria-Hungary alienated Romania, which had shown resentment against the Habsburg monarchy because of the treatment of non-Magyar nationalities in Hungary. Romania thus joined Italy and Serbia in support of irredentist movements inside the Habsburg monarchy. By 1914, leading government circles in Vienna were convinced that offensive action against the foreign protagonists of irredentist claims was essential to the integrity of the empire.
 
  
==World War I==
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==Life and Heritage==
In June 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir of Francis Joseph, participated in army maneuvers in the provinces of Bosnia and Hercegovina, disregarding warnings that his visit would arouse considerable hostility. When Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by a Bosnian nationalist at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, the Austro-Hungarian foreign office decided to use the opportunity for a final reckoning with the Serbian danger. The support of Germany was sought and received, and the Austro-Hungarian foreign office drafted an ultimatum putting the responsibility for the assassination on the Serbian government and demanding full satisfaction. The attitude of the foreign office was opposed by the Hungarian prime minister, István, Count Tisza, who wanted an assurance that a military move against Serbia would not result in territorial acquisitions and thus increase the Serb element in the monarchy. His demand satisfied, Tisza joined the advocates of war. In ministerial meetings on July 15 and 19, a deliberately provocative ultimatum was drafted in words that supposedly excluded the possibility of acceptance by Serbia. The ultimatum was handed to the Serbian government on July 23. The Serbian answer, handed in on time on July 25, was declared insufficient, though Serbia had agreed to all Austro-Hungarian demands except for two that, in effect, entailed constitutional changes in the Serbian government. These were that certain unnamed Serbian officials be dismissed at the whim of Austria-Hungary and that Austro-Hungarian officials participate, on Serbian soil, in the suppression of organizations hostile to Austria-Hungary and in the judicial proceedings against their members.
 
  
In its reply, the Serbian government pointed out that such demands were unprecedented in relations between sovereign states but nevertheless agreed to submit the matter to the Permanent Court of Arbitration or to the arbitration of the Great Powers. On receiving this reply, the Austro-Hungarian ambassador left Belgrade, severing diplomatic relations between the two countries. Berchtold and his government were clearly determined to make war on Serbia, regardless of the fact that such action might result in war between the Great Powers. While the European governments frantically tried to offer compromise solutions, Austria decided on a fait accompli. On July 28, 1914, Berchtold asked Francis Joseph to sign the declaration of war, informing him that it cannot be excluded that the [Triple] Entente powers [Russia, France, Great Britain] might make another move to bring about a peaceful settlement of the conflict unless a declaration of war establishes a fait accompli [eine klare Situation geschaffen].
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=== The Habsburgs ===
  
In the meantime, the German government had taken control of the situation and, placing German strategic and national plans over Austro-Hungarian interests, had changed the Balkan conflict into a continental war. The German declaration of war against France and Russia subordinated the Austro-Serbian conflict to the German aim of settling its own rivalries with France and Russia. According to the terms of the military agreement between Germany and Austria-Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian army had to abandon plans to conquer Serbia and instead protect the German invasion of France against Russian intervention. The setbacks that the Austrian army suffered in 1914 and 1915 can be attributed, to a large extent, to the fact that Austria-Hungary became a military satellite of Germany from the first day of the war, though it cannot be denied that the Austrian high command proved to be quite incompetent. The fact that only after the Germans had taken command could the Russian front be stabilized did little to enhance the prestige of the Austrian government.
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The [[Habsburg]] family was an important ruling house of [[Europe]] and is most well known to be the ruling House of [[Austria]] (and the Austrian Empire) for over six centuries. Mainly by marriage though sometimes by conquest, the Habsburgs ruled half of [[Europe]]. They were Holy Roman Emperors and one of the most powerful families in Europe. It was the [[assassination]] of the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], that sparked off the events that led to [[World War I]]. Europe was to a large extent shaped by this lineage, as was the history of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and its legal code. The dynasty was generally a unifying force, though there were those who might be considered despots. In the 1500s the dynasty split into two forces, a Spanish line and an Austrian line. Both lines died out in the 1700s. However, the heiress of the last Austrian Habsburg (Maria Theresa) had married Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, Duke of Lorraine, (both of whom were great-grandchildren of Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, but from different empresses) and their descendants carried on the Habsburg tradition from [[Vienna]] under the dynastic name ''Habsburg-Lorraine.'' It was to this line that Charles I (sometimes known as Karl I of Austria, or Charles IV of Hungary) was born.
  
===Reception of the War within the Empire===
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=== Immediate family ===
While German public opinion in Austria had welcomed the war enthusiastically, and while some Polish leaders supported the war out of anti-Russian feeling, the Czech population openly showed its animosity. The Czech leader Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who had been one of the most prominent spokesmen of the Czech cause, emigrated to western Europe. Karel Kramár, who had supported the Pan-Slav idea, was tried for high treason and found guilty on the basis of shaky evidence. German nationalism was riding high, but in fact the German Austrians had little influence left. In military matters they were practically reduced to executing German orders; in economic affairs the Hungarians, who controlled the food supply, had the decisive influence. Tisza, who had opposed the war in July 1914, became the strongman of the empire. On his advice Berchtold was dismissed in January 1915 and the foreign office was again entrusted to a Magyar, István, Count Burián. But Burián failed to keep Italy and Romania out of the war. German attempts to pacify the two states by concessions were unsuccessful, because Francis Joseph was unwilling to cede any territory in response to the irredentist demands of the two nations. How little the outward calm in the Habsburg lands corresponded to the sentiment of the population became apparent when Stürgkh was assassinated by Friedrich Adler, the pacifist son of the leader of Austrian socialism, in October 1916. Francis Joseph made Ernst Koerber prime minister, but Koerber had no chance to develop a program of his own.
 
  
On Nov. 21, 1916, Francis Joseph died, leaving the throne and the shaky empire to his 29-year-old grandnephew, Charles, who had had little preparation for his task until he became heir apparent on the death of Francis Ferdinand. Full of the best intentions, Charles set out to save the monarchy by searching for peace in foreign affairs and by recognizing the rights of the empire's non-German and non-Magyar nationalities. Charles relied heavily on the advice of politicians who had had the confidence of Francis Ferdinand. He dismissed Koerber in December 1916 and made Heinrich, Count Clam-Martinic, a Czech aristocrat, prime minister. At the foreign office, he replaced Burián with Ottokar, Count Czernin.
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Born ''Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen'' on August 17, 1887, Charles I was the son of Archduke [[Otto Franz]] of [[Austria]] (1865&ndash;1906) and Princess [[Maria Josepha]] of [[Saxony]] (1867&ndash;1944). He was also a nephew of [[Franz Ferdinand]], Archduke of Austria, whose assassination triggered [[World War I]]. He became heir-presumptive in 1914 when his uncle was assassinated in the [[Bosnia]]n capital of [[Sarajevo]] on the anniversary of the battle of Kosovo of 1379, in which [[Serbia]] lost independence to the [[Turkey|Turks]]. He ascended to the throne as emperor two years later, following the death of his grand-uncle, [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]]. In 1916, he also became a Generalfeldmarschall (general field marshall) in the Austro-Hungarian Army.  
  
When parliament was reconvened in May 1917, it became manifest how far internal disintegration of the Habsburg monarchy had progressed. Parliament again became the stage of unrelenting national conflicts. Finding so little support from the Czech side, Charles turned back to the German element, and in June 1917 he made Ernst von Seidler, once his tutor in administrative and international law, prime minister. Although he tried to appease the Czechs, the stubborn insistence of the Germans not to yield any of their prerogatives made reform of the empire impossible.
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Charles I married Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma in 1911 and they together bore eight children:
  
At the same time, various moves to get Austria-Hungary out of the war ended in failure. After a U.S. offer of general mediation had miscarried in December 1916, Charles tried through secret channels to deal directly with the Entente powers. In the spring of 1917 an exchange of peace feelers took place through the mediation of his brother-in-law, Sixtus, Prince von Bourbon-Parma, but Italy's unwillingness to abandon some of the concessions granted to it in the Treaty of London (1915) made these talks abortive. Similarly, negotiations with Allied representatives carried on in Switzerland brought no results.
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* Crown Prince Otto (1912&ndash;), married Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen and Hildburghausen  
 
 
===Habsburgs Lose Credibility===
 
Since the Austro-Hungarian government was unable to extricate itself from the ties of the Dual Alliance, France and England ceased to have regard for the integrity of the Habsburg monarchy. Furthermore, the revolutionary events in Russia in 1917 and the entry of the United States into the war introduced a new, ideological element into Allied policy toward the Central Powers. The German-directed governments represented an authoritarian system of government, and national agitation in the Habsburg monarchy assumed the character of a democratic liberation movement, winning the sympathies of western European and American public opinion. From early 1918, the Allied governments began officially to promote the activities of the émigrés from Austria, foremost among them the Czech leader Tomáš Masaryk, and in April 1918 a Congress of Oppressed Nationalities was organized in Rome. But the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy cannot be ascribed to the Allied policy of supporting the independence claims of the Habsburg nationalities, which was only a belated adjustment to the changed conditions within Austria-Hungary. From the summer of 1917, the activities of the nationalist movements within the empire made the situation increasingly untenable. Two days before U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed his Fourteen Points, one of which demanded the reorganization of the Habsburg monarchy in accordance with the principles of national autonomy, the Czechs demanded outright independence (Jan. 6, 1918). Within a month, Polish and South Slav deputies, together with the Czechs, presented to the Reichsrat a program demanding the establishment of independent constituent assemblies for nationally homogeneous areas.
 
 
 
The assassination of heir apparent Francis Ferdinand precipitated World War I; the death (1916) of Francis Joseph left his grandnephew, Emperor Charles I, to witness the defeat of Austria-Hungary, which was dissolved immediately after Charles’s abdication in 1918. During the period in which the national-independence movement reached its final stage, another dangerous development manifested itself. From 1915 on, the supply situation had worsened increasingly, and by January 1918 there were dangerous shortages, especially of food. Prompted by the difficult food situation and inspired by the Bolshevik victory in Russia, a strike movement developed. Demands for more bread and a demand for peace were combined with nationalist claims into open opposition to the government.
 
 
 
The strikes among the civilian population were followed by mutinies in the army and navy. The hopes that the government had placed in peace settlements with the eastern states were not fulfilled. The peace treaty with Ukraine (signed in February 1918), the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Soviet Russia (March 3, 1918), and the Treaty of Bucharest, which established peace with Romania (May 7, 1918), did not alleviate the supply situation and irritated the Poles because of certain provisions of the Ukrainian settlement.
 
 
 
In January and February 1918 the army and the government succeeded in suppressing social unrest and antiwar demonstrations. But, from the same date, the national opposition movement gathered momentum. The unresolved problems of the Hapsburg monarchy remained to torment the Balkan successor states. After World War I, members of the family who refused to renounce the throne were exiled from Austria; the exile was repealed in 1996.
 
 
 
===Emergence of Czechoslovakia===
 
It was impossible for the country to survive another winter of hostilities, and on Sept. 14, 1918, Burián published an appeal to all belligerents to discuss the possibilities of ending the war. When this move was opposed by the Germans as well as by the Allied powers, Burián tried for a separate peace settlement for Austria-Hungary. On Oct. 14, 1918, he sent a note to President Wilson asking for an armistice on the basis of the Fourteen Points. On October 18 U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that, in view of the political development of the preceding months and, especially, in view of the fact that Czechoslovakia had been recognized as being at war with the Central Powers, the U.S. government was unable to deal on the basis of the Fourteen Points anymore. On October 27 Gyula, Count Andrássy, who had replaced Burián three days before as foreign minister, sent a new note to Wilson; in asking for an armistice, he declared full adherence to the statements set forth in the U.S. note of October 18, thus explicitly recognizing the existence of an independent Czechoslovak state.
 
 
 
===Total Demise of the Empire===
 
From this moment, it remained only to liquidate the war. On October 22 Heinrich Lammasch, a renowned authority in the field of international law and a respected pacifist, formed a new Cabinet. He hoped to save the Habsburg monarchy by drawing up a federative structure. Instead, however, he found himself charged with the task of supervising the dissolution of the empire and bringing about an orderly transfer of power. The government could not influence events outside of Vienna any longer, and from October 30 it was even challenged in the central agencies by the German-Austrian state council. Hostilities were ended by an armistice signed on Nov. 3, 1918. The Austro-Hungarian high command, which had blundered into the war unprepared in 1914, did little better at its conclusion. Owing to inaccuracies in the wording of the documents, more than 300,000 soldiers were taken prisoner by the Italian army.
 
 
 
For some days the government hoped that, in spite of the secession of the Slav areas, the Habsburg dynasty could survive in the remaining lands. But even the German Austrians had lost faith in the Habsburgs, and, with revolutionary agitation on the rise and republican passion widespread, Charles adhered to the advice of Lammasch and decided to waive his rights to exercise political authority. On Nov. 11, 1918, he issued a proclamation acknowledging “in advance the decision to be taken by German Austria” and stating that he relinquished all part in the administration of the state. The declaration of November 11 marks the formal dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy.
 
 
 
==Life==
 
[[Image:emperorcharlesofaustria.jpg|frame|right|Karl I]]
 
 
 
[[Image:Karloath.jpg|thumb|250px|left|King Charles taking his oath as part of the coronation ceremonies<br><small>[[Budapest]], December 1916.</small>]] 
 
Karl became heir-presumptive when his uncle [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] was assassinated in [[Sarajevo]], the capital of [[Bosnia]], in 1914 on the anniversary of the battle of Kosovo of 1379, in which [[Serbia]] lost independence after defeat by the [[Turkey|Turks]]. The Serbian nationalists feared that the archduke would oppress the Serbs. the event which precipitated World War I.  Karl's reign began in 1916, with the death of his grand-uncle, [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]]. In 1916, he also became a Generalfeldmarschall in the Austro-Hungarian Army. In 1917, Karl secretly entered into peace negotiations with France.  Although his foreign minister, Ottokar Czernin, was only interested in negotiating a general peace which would include Germany as well, Karl himself, in negotiations with the French with his brother-in-law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, an officer in the Belgian army, as intermediary, went much further in suggesting his willingness to make a separate peace. When news of the overture leaked in April 1918, Karl denied all involvement until the French prime minister [[Georges Clemenceau]] published letters signed by him.  This led to Czernin's resignation, forcing Austria-Hungary into an even more dependent position with respect to its seemingly wronged German ally.
 
[[image:Karlfamily.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Karl as '''King Charles IV''' of Hungary, with [[Zita of Bourbon-Parma|Zita]] and Crown Prince [[Otto von Habsburg|Otto]].<br><small>coronation portrait, [[Budapest]], 1916.</small>]]
 
 
 
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was wracked by inner turmoil in the final years of the war, with much tension between ethnic groups. [[United States of America|US]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]] demanded that the Empire allow for the self-determination of its peoples as part of his [[Fourteen Points]]. In response, Karl agreed to reconvene the Imperial parliament and allow for the creation of a [[confederation]] with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the reforms quickly spiraled out of control, with each national government declaring complete independence. Karl's political future quickly became uncertain. For a while it appeared as though he might reign as monarch of a newly independent Austria, but Austria's new Republicanism government ultimately vetoed this idea.
 
 
 
On 11 November 1918, he proclaimed formally "I relinquish every participation in the administration of the State" but did not abdicate his thrones. [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/abdication_karl.htm] He then fled to [[Switzerland]] and continued to pursue regaining power from exile. Encouraged by Hungarian nationalists, he sought twice in 1921 to reclaim the throne of Hungary but failed due to various factors including the lack of support of the Hungarian Regent [[Miklós Horthy]]. Horthy's failure to support Karl's restoration attempts is often described as "treasonous" by monarchists. Critics suggest that Horthy's actions were more firmly grounded in political reality than the King of Hungary and his supporters. He left Hungary from the city of Baja forever.
 
 
 
He died of severe [[pneumonia]] (brought on after Karl, an already sickly man, walked into town on a freezing winter's day) on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira]] in 1922. His remains are still kept in the island, in the Church of Our Lady of the [[Monte (Funchal)|Monte]], in spite of several attempts to move them to the [[Imperial Crypt, Vienna|Habsburg Crypt]] in Vienna. During his stay on the island, his personal chaplain was Priest [[Jorge de Faria e Castro]].
 
 
 
Karl was the son of [[Archduke Otto Franz of Austria]] (1865&ndash;1906) and Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony (1867&ndash;1944);  he was also a nephew of [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], whose assassination triggered [[World War I]].  In 1911, he was married to Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma.
 
 
 
He had eight children (six boys and two girls):
 
 
 
* [[Otto, Crown Prince of Austria|Crown Prince Otto]] (1912&ndash;), married Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen and Hildburghausen and has issue
 
 
* Archduchess Adelheid (1914&ndash;1971), unmarried
 
* Archduchess Adelheid (1914&ndash;1971), unmarried
* Archduke Robert]] (1915&ndash;1996), married Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta  
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* Archduke Robert (1915&ndash;1996), married Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta  
[[Image:Karl_horse.jpg|thumb|200px|A crowned King Charles on horseback on the coronation mound<br><small>One of the traditional features of the coronation of [[Hungary|Hungarian]] monarchs.</small>]]
 
 
* Archduke Felix (1916&ndash;), married Princess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg  
 
* Archduke Felix (1916&ndash;), married Princess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg  
 
* Archduke Karl Ludwig (1918&ndash;), married Princess Yolande of Ligne  
 
* Archduke Karl Ludwig (1918&ndash;), married Princess Yolande of Ligne  
 
* Archduke Rudolf (1919&ndash;), married firstly Countess Xenia Tschernyscheva-Besobrasova and secondly Princess Anna of Wrede
 
* Archduke Rudolf (1919&ndash;), married firstly Countess Xenia Tschernyscheva-Besobrasova and secondly Princess Anna of Wrede
 
* Archduchess Charlotte (1921&ndash;1989), married Count Georg of Carlow, Duke of Mecklenburg
 
* Archduchess Charlotte (1921&ndash;1989), married Count Georg of Carlow, Duke of Mecklenburg
* Archduchess Elisabeth (1922&ndash;1993), married Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein and had issue
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* Archduchess Elisabeth (1922&ndash;1993), married Prince Heinrich of [[Liechtenstein]]
 
 
==Dissolution of the Habsburg Empire==
 
In April 1918, Czernin was replaced as foreign minister by Burián. This change was the result of a conflict between Czernin and Charles over the desirability and possibility of Austria's concluding a separate peace with the Allies. Unknown to Czernin, Charles had in 1917 made secret overtures to the Allies, which were revealed by the French premier Georges Clemenceau. The Germans were outraged, and Czernin was dismissed on their orders. Burián returned to the foreign office on April 16 and immediately reported to the German high command at Spa, where Charles and Burián had to assure the German emperor, William II, of their unchanging loyalty. While this act of submission satisfied the German Austrians, it further incensed the Slav opposition. In May 1918 a Slav national celebration in Prague demonstrated the strength of the independence movements. But Charles and the German elements in the central government were still not aware of the extent of the disintegration.
 
  
In July 1918 Prime Minister Seidler resigned, and his successor, Max Hussarek von Heinlein, began a belated effort to reorganize the Habsburg monarchy. Hussarek's efforts to federalize the empire in the moment of imminent military defeat unintentionally turned out to provide the basis for the formal liquidation of the Habsburg monarchy. On Oct. 16, 1918, Charles issued a manifesto announcing the transformation of Austria into a federal union of four components (German, Czech, South Slav, and Ukrainian). The Poles were to be free to join a Polish state, and Trieste was to be given a special status. The lands of the Hungarian crown were to be excepted from this program. Within a few days, national councils were established in all the provinces of the empire and for all practical purposes acted as national governments. The Poles proclaimed the union of all Poles in a unified state and declared their independence at Warsaw on Oct. 7, 1918. The South Slavs advocated union with Serbia, and on Oct. 28, 1918, the Czechs proclaimed the establishment of an independent republic.  
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The last emperor of the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy died of pneumonia, presumably caught after taking a walk while already a sickly man, on a freezing winter's day on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira Islands|Madeira]] in 1922. He remains buried in the island’s Church of Our Lady of the Monte despite several attempts to move his remains to the Habsburg Imperial Crypt in [[Vienna]].
  
The dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy was thus consummated by the end of October 1918—that is, before the war actually ended.Francis Joseph was against change, particularly vis-a-vis Germany. He would probably have continued in the war as part of the German alliance. To Charles, the alliance was secondary to peace, which he envisioned as cooperation with Germany or as a sole party. In December 1916, Charles appointed the German-Bohemian Count Ottokar Czernin, former confidant of ARchduke Francis Ferdinand as foreign minister. The outcome of the secret Sixtus negotiations in 1917 was that the emperor came to be viewed as a man who could not be trusted by his own  subjects, by the German ally, and by French president Clemenceau and the British Premier Lloyd George. His discreation was compromised, although Czernin was to blame for the most part. He meant well but did not conduct himself prudently. Imperioal Au8stria in the eyes of alies now lacked credibility to continue in peace negotiations. Two months after the public exposure of the Sixtus negotiations, the French governmetn recognized the Czechoslovak National COuncil as representative official agency of the Czechs, followed by recognition by the U.S.A. and Great Britain. The SIxtus debacle signalled an impending collpase of the Habsburg Empire. National revolutions were gaining momentum. Wilson on October 18, 1918, rejected the Habsburg Empire's offer of Fourteen Points, the Empire suffered its final blow. Serious negotiations took place with the representatives of the Austro-Hungarian nationalities rather than the Joint Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
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Eighty-two years after his death, in 2004, Charles I was beatified by [[Pope John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], who stated in part, "From the beginning, the Emperor Karl conceived of his office as a holy service to his people. His chief concern was to follow the [[Christian]] vocation to holiness also in his political actions."
  
== After his death ==
 
Historians have been mixed in their evaluations of Karl and his reign.  One of the most critical has been Helmut Rumpler, head of the Habsburg commission of the [[Austrian Academy of Sciences]], who has described Karl as "a dilettante, far too weak for the challenges facing him, out of his depth, and not really a politician."  However, others have seen Karl as a brave and honorable figure who tried as emperor-king to halt [[World War I]].  The English writer, Herbert Vivian, wrote: "Karl was a great leader, a prince of peace, who wanted to save the world from a year of war; a stateman with ideas to save his people from the complicated problems of his empire; a king who loved his people, a fearless man, a noble soul, distinquished, a saint from whose grave blessings come." Furthermore, Anatole France, the French novelist, stated: "Emperor Karl is the only decent man to come out of the war in a leadership position, yet he was a saint and no one listened to him.  He sincerely wanted peace, and therefore was despised by the whole world.  It was a wonderful chance that was lost."
 
 
All of these various viewpoints give weight to the words of Pope Saint Pius X during an audience with a young Karl: "I bless Archduke Karl, who will be the future Emperor of Austria and will help lead his countries and peoples to great honor and many blessings—but this will not become obvious until after his death."
 
 
== Beatification ==
 
Karl has been solemnly declared blessed in the ceremony of beatification by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The Church has praised Karl for putting his [[Christianity|Christian]] faith first in making political decisions, and for his perceived role as a peacemaker during the war, especially after 1917. The ''cause'' or campaign began in 1949 when testimony of his holiness was collected in the Archdiocese of [[Vienna]]. In 1954, he was declared ''venerable'', the first step on the process beatification. The League of Prayers established for the promotion of his cause has created this [http://www.emperor-charles.org website.] Christoph Cardinal Schönborn of Vienna has been the Church's sponsor for his beatification.
 
 
During the Mass of Beatification on October 3, 2004, [[Pope]] John Paul II stated:
 
<blockquote>
 
The decisive task of Christians consists in seeking, recognizing and following God's will in all things. The Christian statesman, Karl of Austria, confronted this challenge every day. To his eyes, war appeared as "something appalling". Amid the tumult of the First World War, he strove to promote the peace initiative of my Predecessor, Benedict XV.<br />
 
From the beginning, the Emperor Karl conceived of his office as a holy service to his people. His chief concern was to follow the Christian vocation to holiness also in his political actions. For this reason, his thoughts turned to social assistance. May he be an example for all of us, especially for those who have political responsibilities in Europe today!</blockquote>
 
 
Recent milestones include:
 
* On April 14, 2003, the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints in the presence of Pope John Paul II promulgated Karl of Austria's "heroic virtues."
 
* On December 21, 2003, the Congregation certified, on the basis of three expert medical opinions, that a miracle in 1960 occurred through the intercession of Karl. The miracle attributed to Karl was the scientifically inexplicable healing of a Brazilian [[nun]] with debilitating varicose veins; she was able to get out of bed after she prayed for his beatification.
 
* On October 3, 2004, he was beatified by Pope John Paul II.  The beatification has caused controversy because of the mistaken belief that Karl authorized his army's use of poison gas during World War I [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3710810.stm], when he was the first, and only, world leader during the war who banned its use.
 
* Currently, several possible miracles attributed to his intercession are being investigated and documented. Another miracle is required for his canonization as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.
 
 
==Ancestors==
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Karl's ancestors in three generations'''
+
|+'''Charles I's (Karl I) ancestors in three generations'''
 
|-
 
|-
 
|-
 
|-
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| align="center"| '''Mother's mother's mother:'''<br>Maria II of Portugal
 
| align="center"| '''Mother's mother's mother:'''<br>Maria II of Portugal
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
== Reign ==
 +
 +
=== Peace efforts ===
 +
 +
In 1917, the unsuccessful [[United States|American]] offer of mediation to end [[World War I]] prompted Charles, desperately trying to put an end to the war, toward secret negotiations with [[France]] as a representative of the [[Triple Entente|Entente]] powers.
 +
 +
With the aid of his wife Zita's brother, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, he was able instead to make his most bold initiative for peace. Two of Zita's brothers, including Sixtus, were serving with the Belgians, Austria's enemy. Through Sixtus, Charles made a peace offer to the Allied governments. Sixtus approached the French government first and later the [[Great Britain|British]] government, speaking to Prime Minister [[David Lloyd-George]].
 +
 +
Charles' peace plan allowed for sweeping territorial gains to the Allied nations - he was more interested in peace than in preserving the full boundaries of the Empire. This was another reason for secrecy; the full revelation of what he was prepared to negotiate away in the interests of [[peace]] would certainly have caused a strong reaction from the more aggressive elements within [[Austria-Hungary]]. Charles' willingness to make concessions went even further than that of Pope [[Benedict XV]], himself an ardent and enthusiastic peace campaigner. Charles was willing, for example, to cede [[Alsace-Lorraine]], a territory which was traditionally [[Habsburg]] but currently then in [[Germany|German]] hands.<ref>James Bogle. April 1996. [http://www.ad2000.com.au/articles/1996/apr1996p12_783.html Emperor Charles I: World War I peace campaigner], AD2000; ''The Thomas More Centre'', Retrieved March 21, 2007. </ref>
 +
 +
When the news of the overture leaked in April 1918, Karl denied all involvement, but the [[France|French]] Prime Minister [[Georges Clemenceau]] published letters signed by the emperor himself. As a result, The French president and the [[Great Britain|British]] Premier [[Lloyd George]] came to view the emperor as a man who could not be trusted by his own subjects and could not continue in the peace negotiations. The events were further complicated by [[Russia]]’s revolution in 1917 and the entry of the [[United States|United States]] into the war in the same year. This event came to be known as the "Sixtus Negotiations". <ref> [http://www.bartleby.com/67/1771.html 1917, Feb.–June], ''The Encyclopedia of World History, Sixth edition'', Retrieved March 19, 2007 </ref>
 +
 +
=== Attempts to save the monarchy ===
 +
 +
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was wracked by inner turmoil in the final years of the war, with much tension between ethnic groups. U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] in 1918 demanded that the monarchy allow for the self-determination of its peoples as part of his [[Fourteen Points]]. In response, Emperor Charles agreed to reconvene the Imperial Parliament and allow for the creation of a [[confederation]] with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the reforms quickly spiraled out of control, with each national government declaring complete independence. Karl's political future became uncertain. For a while it appeared as though he might reign as monarch of a newly independent Austria, but Austria's new Republican government ultimately vetoed this idea.
 +
 +
The Emperor made attempts in late October of 1918 to save the Habsburg monarchy; he issued a manifesto announcing a federal union of four components (German, Czech, South Slav, and [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]]), but it was impossible to sway events outside of [[Vienna]] any longer, and an armistice was signed on Nov. 3, 1918. The government remained hopeful that the Habsburg dynasty would continue on in what had remained of it after the secession of the Slav areas, but Charles wisely took the advice of Heinrich Lammasch, a renowned authority in the field of international law, and on November 11, 1918, proclaimed "I relinquish every participation in the administration of the State" but did not abdicate his thrones.<ref>May 22, 2004, [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/abdication_karl.htm Emperor Karl I's Abdication Proclamation, 11 November 1918], ''First World War Website'', retrieved March 10, 2007 </ref>.
 +
 +
This declaration marked the formal dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy. Charles then fled to [[Switzerland]] and continued to pursue regaining power while in exile. Encouraged by [[Hungary|Hungarian]] nationalists, he sought twice in 1921 to reclaim the throne of Hungary but failed due to various factors including the lack of support from the Hungarian Regent [[Miklós Horthy]], which monarchists view as treason, although critics attribute Horthy's actions to his firm footing in political reality.
 +
 +
After [[World War I]], members of the family who refused to renounce the throne were exiled from Austria; the exile was repealed in 1996.
 +
 +
 +
==Final Decades of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire==
 +
 +
===Nineteenth century===
 +
The Habsburg Monarchy began showing signs of decline in the nineteenth century, when Emperor Francis Joseph (1848–1916) lost control of [[Italy]] and [[Prussia]], with the latter taken over by [[Germany]]. Moreover, [[Russia]] proved to be a challenger in the [[Balkans]]. In 1867 the Habsburgs redrew the boundaries of their lands to create the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. At the same time, the task of ruling the lands became increasingly more difficult with a plethora of nationalities vying for control of their own countries amidst the absence of a unifying ideology. Hungarians, Germans, and Poles were the most vocal nationals. In addition, the Habsburgs were unable to meet the demands of the booming middle and industrial classes.
 +
 +
The restructuring of the monarchy spurred crises among the various Slav peoples within the monarchy. Czechs oscillated toward the Pan-Slav movement and held the [[Prague Slavic Congress, 1848|Congress of Slavs]] in July 1908 in [[Prague]]. On the day of the 60th anniversary of the accession to the throne of the widely unpopular Francis Joseph, the discontent and criticisms spilled into riots that prompted the imposition of martial law in Prague. In 1909 Prime Minister Baron von Bienerth made an attempt to appease the nationalities by including national representatives (Landsmannminister) in his Cabinet. The Germans, on the other hand, viewed the monarchy as an extension of German culture, while the Slavs aspired to save Austria for the sake of themselves, as they comprised two-thirds of its population. However, the Poles' loyalty to the central government diluted the Slavic efforts at national representation, which consequently crystallized into largely a Czech-German standoff that polarized even political parties within [[Bohemia]].
 +
 +
===Twentieth century===
 +
The twentieth century brought with it the culmination in the Balkan discontent, with [[Bosnia]] and [[Serbia]] stepping up national demands. In 1913, [[Austria]] was mulling military action against Serbia but could not follow through for lack of support from [[Italy]] and [[Germany]]. Instead, the Austro-Hungarian Empire saw its territory shrink in the Balkan peninsula, with the consequence of pushing the Turks out of [[Europe]]. It was increasingly difficult to maneuver among demands of individual nations of the Empire, and when the Habsburgs took the side of [[Bulgaria]] against Serbia, they undercut their standing in [[Romania]], which harbored antagonism toward the monarchy due to the treatment of non-[[Hungary|Magyar]] nationalities in Hungary. Consequently, Romania joined with Italy and Serbia in support of anti-Habsburg actions inside the monarchy. By 1914, [[Vienna]] felt it was crucial to stem these developments in order to preserve the empire.
 +
 +
===World War I===
 +
The declaration of the war became imminent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir of Francis Joseph, was assassinated by a [[Bosnia]]n nationalist at [[Sarajevo]] on June 28, 1914, an event that served as a pretext for curbing the Serbian threat. Supported by Germany, the Austro-Hungarian foreign office officially assigned responsibility for the assassination to the Serbian government. This was to the dislike of the Hungarian prime minister, István, Count Tisza, who feared that a military action against Serbia and the country's subjugation would increase the Serbian population in the monarchy, but once he was assured of the opposite, he joined the war club. The Serbian government agreed to all but two Austro-Hungarian demands, but the monarchy was already decided to wage war with Serbia, notwithstanding that such action could provoke a large-scale war. The [[Europe|European]] governments put forward compromise solutions, but on July 28, 1914, Francis Joseph signed the declaration of war.
 +
 +
The [[Germany|German]] government took advantage of the Habsburg woes and declared war against [[France]] and [[Russia]] in an effort to address its own issues with those countries. Germany and Austria-Hungary entered into a military agreement that bound the latter to give up military action against Serbia and protect the German invasion of France against [[Russia]]n intervention. [[Austria-Hungary]] thus reluctantly became a military satellite of Germany.
 +
 +
The German public was in favor of the war as were some [[Poland|Polish]] leaders, albeit as a result of the mounting anti-Russian feeling, but the Czechs had had enough of the monarchy at this point. One of the most prominent proponents of the Czech cause, [[Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk]], emigrated to western Europe, and the Pan-Slavism advocate Karel Kramář was imprisoned for treason. Ethnic Germans living in Austria had seen most of their influence dissipated; in military matters they could only follow German orders. Hungarians had the upper hand in economic affairs; they controlled the food supply. In January 1915, the foreign office went again to a [[Magyar]], István, Count Burián, whose skills were not sufficient to keep [[Italy]] and [[Romania]], which had territorial claims, out of the war.
 +
 +
===In the Wake of the Sixtus Debacle===
 +
[[Image:Karloath.jpg|thumb|250px|King Charles taking his oath as part of the coronation ceremonies<br><small>[[Budapest]], December 1916.</small>]] 
 +
[[image:Karlfamily.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Karl as '''King Charles IV''' of Hungary, with Zita of Bourbon-Parma and Crown Prince Otto von Habsburg.<br><small>coronation portrait, [[Budapest]], 1916.</small>]]
 +
Two months after the public exposure of the Sixtus negotiations, the French government recognized the [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] National Council as an official agency of the Czechs, as did the [[United States]] and [[Great Britain]]. At the same time, national revolutions within the monarchy were gaining momentum. Foreign Minister Burián sent a note to U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] on October 14, 1918, asking for an armistice on the basis of the [[Fourteen Points]], which Wilson rejected on the grounds that “in view of the political development of the preceding months and, especially, in view of the fact that [[Czechoslovakia]] had been recognized as being at war with the Central Powers, the U.S. government was unable to deal on the basis of the Fourteen Points anymore.”<ref> [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33376/Austria Austria: The end of the Habsburg empire] ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', Retrieved March 10, 2007 </ref>
 +
 +
The monarchy was on its knees, which was evidenced by the fact that serious negotiations were held with the representatives of the Austro-Hungarian nationalities rather than the monarchy’s Joint Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Both the Western European and American publics viewed the nationalist trends, partly encouraged by food shortages and the [[Bolshevik]] victory in [[Russia]], as a democratic liberation movement. From early 1918, the Allied governments began officially advancing the activities of the emigrants from Austrian-controlled lands, particularly those of [[Tomas Garrigue Masaryk|Masaryk]], but the foreign assistance alone did not bring about the demise of the Habsburg Empire. It was the strife for independence of the individual nationalities within the monarchy that rendered the coexistence no longer viable.
 +
 +
National councils were established in all provinces of the empire which acted as national governments. On October 27, [[Gyula Andrassy, Sr.|Foreign Minister Gyula, Count Andrássy]], sent a new armistice note to President Wilson, accepting all the statements set forth in the U.S. note of October 18, thus recognizing the existence of an independent Czechoslovak state. The Poles declared their independence as a unified state on October 7, while the South [[Slavs]] advocated union with Serbia. The dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy was thus consummated by the end of October 1918, that is, before the war actually ended.
 +
 +
== Legacy ==
 +
Historians have been mixed in their evaluations of Charles I's reign. Helmut Rumpler, head of the Habsburg commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, has described Karl as "a dilettante, far too weak for the challenges facing him, out of his depth, and not really a politician." On the other hand, others laud him as a brave and honorable figure who strove to halt [[World War I]]. English writer Herbert Vivian wrote: "Karl was a great leader, a prince of peace, who wanted to save the world from a year of war; a statesman with ideas to save his people from the complicated problems of his empire; a king who loved his people, a fearless man, a noble soul, distinguished, a saint from whose grave blessings come." French novelist [[Anatole France]] stated: "Emperor Karl is the only decent man to come out of the war in a leadership position, yet he was a saint and no one listened to him. He sincerely wanted peace, and therefore was despised by the whole world. It was a wonderful chance that was lost."
 +
 +
These viewpoints give weight to the words of Pope Pius X, who told the young Karl during an audience with him: "I bless Archduke Karl, who will be the future Emperor of Austria and will help lead his countries and peoples to great honor and many blessings &ndash; but this will not become obvious until after his death."
 +
 +
== Recognition in the Roman Catholic Church ==
 +
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has praised Charles I (Karl I) for putting his [[Christianity|Christian]] faith first in making political decisions, and for his recognized role as a peacemaker during the war, especially after 1917. He was the first, and only, world leader during [[World War I]] who banned the use of poison gas.
 +
 +
Christoph Cardinal Schönborn of Vienna became the Church's sponsor for his beatification. <ref> [http://www.emperor-charles.org Blessed Karl of Austria, Emperor and King], ''Beatification and Canonization Site'', Retrieved March 19, 2007 </ref>  This process began in 1949 when testimony was collected in the Archdiocese of [[Vienna]] regarding his life. ''Beatification'' is a necessary step towards being declared a saint, following being declared ''venerable'' and prior to the step of ''canonization'' (recognized sainthood). In 1954 he was declared ''venerable.''
 +
 +
{{Canonization}}
 +
 +
* On April 14, 2003, the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints in the presence of Pope John Paul II promulgated Karl of Austria's "heroic virtues."
 +
* On December 21, 2003, the Congregation certified, on the basis of three expert medical opinions, that a miracle in 1960 occurred through the intercession of Karl. The miracle attributed to Karl was the scientifically inexplicable healing of a Brazilian nun with debilitating varicose veins; she was able to get out of bed after she prayed for his beatification. Miracles are a requirement for beatification and canonization.
 +
* On October 3, 2004, Charles I (Karl I) was solemnly declared "blessed" in the ceremony of beatification conducted by Pope John Paul II.<ref> October 3, 2004 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3710810.stm  Emperor and mystic nun beatified] ''British Broadcasting Corporation Online'', Retrieved March 19, 2007</ref>
 +
* Currently, several possible miracles attributed to his intercession are being investigated and documented. Another miracle is required for his canonization as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.
 +
 +
During the Mass of Beatification on October 3, 2004, Pope John Paul II stated:
 +
<blockquote>"The decisive task of Christians consists in seeking, recognizing and following God's will in all things. The Christian statesman, Karl of Austria, confronted this challenge every day. To his eyes, war appeared as "something appalling". Amid the tumult of the First World War, he strove to promote the peace initiative of my Predecessor, Benedict XV.  From the beginning, the Emperor Karl conceived of his office as a holy service to his people. His chief concern was to follow the Christian vocation to holiness also in his political actions. For this reason, his thoughts turned to social assistance. May he be an example for all of us, especially for those who have political responsibilities in Europe today!"<ref> October 3, 2004[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3711606.stm Profiles: Emmerich and Karl I], ''BBC News Online'', Retrieved March 19, 2007</ref> </blockquote>
 +
 +
The feast day of Blessed Karl I (Charles I) is October 21, the anniversary of his marriage to Princess Zita in 1911. He proposed to her in front of the Blessed Sacrament at the Marian Shrine of Mariazell, when the tragic murder of his uncle, the Hapsburg Archduke of Austria Franz Ferdinand, was still three years away.<ref>Christopher Westley, October 6, 2004, [http://www.lewrockwell.com/westley/westley11.html An Emperor Blessed] ''Christopher Westley Archives'', Retrieved March 19, 2007 </ref>
  
 
==Official Title of Karl I==
 
==Official Title of Karl I==
{| align=right
+
{| align=left
 
|-
 
|-
 
|{{Infobox Austriaemperorstyles|
 
|{{Infobox Austriaemperorstyles|
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altstyle=Sire|}}
 
altstyle=Sire|}}
 
|}
 
|}
{| align=right
+
 
|-
 
|{{infobox hungarykstyles|
 
royal name=Charles IV of Hungary|
 
dipstyle=[[Apostolic Majesty|His Apostolic Majesty]]|
 
offstyle=Your Apostolic Majesty|
 
altstyle=Sire|}}
 
|}
 
 
His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,
 
His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,
  
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By the Grace of God,
 
By the Grace of God,
Emperor of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]],
+
Emperor of Austrian Empire,Apostolic King of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], of this name the Fourth, King of [[Bohemia]], Dalmatia, [[Croatia]], Slavonia, and Galicia, Lodomeria, and Illyria; King of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] etc., Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany and Cracow, Duke of Lorraine and of Salzburg, of Styria, of Carinthia, of Carniola and of the Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], of Duchy of Modena, Duchy of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) and Zator, of Teschen, Friuli, Dubrovnik and Zadar; Princely Count of Habsburg and Tyrol, of Kyburg, Gorizia and Gradisca; Prince of Trento and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Vorarlberg, Bregenz, Sonnenberg, etc.; Lord of Trieste, of Kotor, and in the Wendish Mark; Grosswojwod of the Voivodship of Serbia and Tamiš Banat etc. etc.
Apostolic King of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], of this name the Fourth,
 
King of [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], and [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], [[Lodomeria]], and [[Illyria]]; King of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] etc., Archduke of [[Austria]]; Grand Duke of [[Tuscany]] and [[Cracow]], Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] and of [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], of [[Styria]], of [[Carinthia]], of [[Carniola]] and of the [[Bukovina]]; Grand Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], of [[Duchy of Modena|Modena]], [[Duchy of Parma|Parma]], [[Piacenza]] and [[Guastalla]], of [[Oświęcim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], of [[Teschen]], [[Friuli]], [[Dubrovnik|Ragusa]] and [[Zadar|Zara]]; Princely Count of [[Habsburg]] and [[Tyrol]], of [[Kyburg]], [[Gorizia]] and [[Gradisca]]; Prince of [[Trento|Trent]] and [[Brixen]]; Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and in [[Istria]]; Count of [[Hohenems]], [[Feldkirch, Vorarlberg|Feldkirch]], [[Bregenz]], [[Sonnenberg]], etc.; Lord of [[Trieste]], of [[Kotor|Cattaro]], and in the [[Wendish Mark]]; [[Grosswojwod|Grand Voivode]] of the [[Voivodship of Serbia and Tamiš Banat|Voivodship of Serbia]] etc. etc.
 
 
 
==See also==
 
*Otto von Habsburg,  Karl's oldest son and as of 2006 head of the Habsburg family
 
*[[Austria-Hungary]]
 
 
 
==External links==
 
{{commons2|Karl I of Austria}}
 
* [http://www.geocities.com/veldes1/karl.html "Karl Franz Josef von Habsburg-Lothringen"] ''Austrian Commanders'', accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33377/Austria "Austria: World War I"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-129459/Austria "Austria: Conflicts of Nationality"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33375/Austria "Austria: Conflict with Serbia"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33374/Austria "Austria: Party rivalries"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-129459/Austria "Austria: Conflicts of nationality"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ha/Hapsburg.html,] accessed March 10, 2007
 
* [http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/search/search.php?word=Hapsburg "Habsburg"] ''The History Channel'', accessed March 13, 2007
 
  
 
{{start}}  
 
{{start}}  
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[[Category:History and biography]]
+
==See Also==
 +
* [[Fourteen Points]]
 +
 
 +
==Notes==
 +
<div class="references-small">
 +
<references />
 +
</div>
 +
 
 +
 
 +
==References==
 +
* Flenley, Ralph. 1970. ''Makers of nineteenth-century Europe.'' Essay index reprint series. London: J.M. Dent. ISBN 0836915712
 +
* Harding, Bertita. 1939. ''Imperial twilight; the story of Karl and Zita of Hungary.'' Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Co.
 +
* Kann, Robert A. ''A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526&ndash;1918.'' Berkeley; and London: University of California Press, 1974. ISBN 0520024087.
 +
* Zessner-Spitzenberg, Hans Karl, and Katharina Rasinger. 1963. ''The Emperor Charles I of Austria, a great Christian monarch; a short history of his life and death.'' London: K. Rasinger.
 +
 
 
[[Category:Biography]]
 
[[Category:Biography]]
 +
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
  
{{credit|91287843}}
+
{{credits|91287843}}

Latest revision as of 23:55, 12 January 2020


Emperor Charles I of Austria

The Blessed Charles I (Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen), (17 August, 1887 – 1 April, 1922) (Hungarian: Károly IV (Károly Ferenc József) was, among other titles, the last Emperor of Austria, the last King of Hungary, the final King of Bohemia, and the last monarch of the Habsburg Dynasty. He reigned as Emperor Karl I of Austria and King Károly IV of Hungary from 1916 to 1918. He was a direct descendent of the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

At the end of World War I, Charles was compelled to sign a withdrawal of power but refused to sign an abdication document, despite receiving threats. Convinced of the necessity of the monarchy, he sought to regain the throne until his death.

Charles I had ascended to the throne at the age of 29 lacking sufficient experience to handle a monarchy on its last legs, with the many nationalities vying for independence and German nationalism on the rise. Historians vary in the assessment of his efforts, with some arguing that he was a benevolent man, even a saint, who exerted himself to halt the war that he had inherited, while others contend that he was weak and lacking in political skill. His determination to end the war culminated in what came to be known as the Sixtus debacle; his attempt to negotiate peace in dealing directly with France, a representative of the Allied Powers. In the end this in fact contributed to the dissolution of the monarchy. When the individual countries within the empire declared independence, aided by the Western world, the bell tolled for the Habsburg Monarchy and its last emperor.

Charles died at the age of 34 while in impoverished exile on the Portuguese island of Madeira.

Life and Heritage

The Habsburgs

The Habsburg family was an important ruling house of Europe and is most well known to be the ruling House of Austria (and the Austrian Empire) for over six centuries. Mainly by marriage though sometimes by conquest, the Habsburgs ruled half of Europe. They were Holy Roman Emperors and one of the most powerful families in Europe. It was the assassination of the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, that sparked off the events that led to World War I. Europe was to a large extent shaped by this lineage, as was the history of the Holy Roman Empire and its legal code. The dynasty was generally a unifying force, though there were those who might be considered despots. In the 1500s the dynasty split into two forces, a Spanish line and an Austrian line. Both lines died out in the 1700s. However, the heiress of the last Austrian Habsburg (Maria Theresa) had married Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, Duke of Lorraine, (both of whom were great-grandchildren of Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, but from different empresses) and their descendants carried on the Habsburg tradition from Vienna under the dynastic name Habsburg-Lorraine. It was to this line that Charles I (sometimes known as Karl I of Austria, or Charles IV of Hungary) was born.

Immediate family

Born Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen on August 17, 1887, Charles I was the son of Archduke Otto Franz of Austria (1865–1906) and Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony (1867–1944). He was also a nephew of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, whose assassination triggered World War I. He became heir-presumptive in 1914 when his uncle was assassinated in the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo on the anniversary of the battle of Kosovo of 1379, in which Serbia lost independence to the Turks. He ascended to the throne as emperor two years later, following the death of his grand-uncle, Franz Joseph. In 1916, he also became a Generalfeldmarschall (general field marshall) in the Austro-Hungarian Army.

Charles I married Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma in 1911 and they together bore eight children:

  • Crown Prince Otto (1912–), married Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen and Hildburghausen
  • Archduchess Adelheid (1914–1971), unmarried
  • Archduke Robert (1915–1996), married Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta
  • Archduke Felix (1916–), married Princess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg
  • Archduke Karl Ludwig (1918–), married Princess Yolande of Ligne
  • Archduke Rudolf (1919–), married firstly Countess Xenia Tschernyscheva-Besobrasova and secondly Princess Anna of Wrede
  • Archduchess Charlotte (1921–1989), married Count Georg of Carlow, Duke of Mecklenburg
  • Archduchess Elisabeth (1922–1993), married Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein

The last emperor of the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy died of pneumonia, presumably caught after taking a walk while already a sickly man, on a freezing winter's day on the Portuguese island of Madeira in 1922. He remains buried in the island’s Church of Our Lady of the Monte despite several attempts to move his remains to the Habsburg Imperial Crypt in Vienna.

Eighty-two years after his death, in 2004, Charles I was beatified by Pope John Paul II of the Roman Catholic Church, who stated in part, "From the beginning, the Emperor Karl conceived of his office as a holy service to his people. His chief concern was to follow the Christian vocation to holiness also in his political actions."

Charles I's (Karl I) ancestors in three generations
Karl I, Emperor of Austria Father:
Archduke Otto Franz of Austria
Father's father:
Archduke Carl Ludwig of Austria
Father's father's father:
Archduke Franz Karl of Austria
Father's father's mother:
Sophie of Bavaria
Father's mother:
Maria Annunciata of the Two Sicilies
Father's mother's father:
Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies
Father's mother's mother:
Maria Theresa of Austria
Mother:
Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony
Mother's father:
George of Saxony
Mother's father's father:
John I of Saxony
Mother's father's mother:
Amelia of Bavaria (1801-1877)
Mother's mother:
Maria Anna of Portugal
Mother's mother's father:
Ferdinand II of Portugal
Mother's mother's mother:
Maria II of Portugal

Reign

Peace efforts

In 1917, the unsuccessful American offer of mediation to end World War I prompted Charles, desperately trying to put an end to the war, toward secret negotiations with France as a representative of the Entente powers.

With the aid of his wife Zita's brother, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, he was able instead to make his most bold initiative for peace. Two of Zita's brothers, including Sixtus, were serving with the Belgians, Austria's enemy. Through Sixtus, Charles made a peace offer to the Allied governments. Sixtus approached the French government first and later the British government, speaking to Prime Minister David Lloyd-George.

Charles' peace plan allowed for sweeping territorial gains to the Allied nations - he was more interested in peace than in preserving the full boundaries of the Empire. This was another reason for secrecy; the full revelation of what he was prepared to negotiate away in the interests of peace would certainly have caused a strong reaction from the more aggressive elements within Austria-Hungary. Charles' willingness to make concessions went even further than that of Pope Benedict XV, himself an ardent and enthusiastic peace campaigner. Charles was willing, for example, to cede Alsace-Lorraine, a territory which was traditionally Habsburg but currently then in German hands.[1]

When the news of the overture leaked in April 1918, Karl denied all involvement, but the French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau published letters signed by the emperor himself. As a result, The French president and the British Premier Lloyd George came to view the emperor as a man who could not be trusted by his own subjects and could not continue in the peace negotiations. The events were further complicated by Russia’s revolution in 1917 and the entry of the United States into the war in the same year. This event came to be known as the "Sixtus Negotiations". [2]

Attempts to save the monarchy

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was wracked by inner turmoil in the final years of the war, with much tension between ethnic groups. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 demanded that the monarchy allow for the self-determination of its peoples as part of his Fourteen Points. In response, Emperor Charles agreed to reconvene the Imperial Parliament and allow for the creation of a confederation with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the reforms quickly spiraled out of control, with each national government declaring complete independence. Karl's political future became uncertain. For a while it appeared as though he might reign as monarch of a newly independent Austria, but Austria's new Republican government ultimately vetoed this idea.

The Emperor made attempts in late October of 1918 to save the Habsburg monarchy; he issued a manifesto announcing a federal union of four components (German, Czech, South Slav, and Ukrainian), but it was impossible to sway events outside of Vienna any longer, and an armistice was signed on Nov. 3, 1918. The government remained hopeful that the Habsburg dynasty would continue on in what had remained of it after the secession of the Slav areas, but Charles wisely took the advice of Heinrich Lammasch, a renowned authority in the field of international law, and on November 11, 1918, proclaimed "I relinquish every participation in the administration of the State" but did not abdicate his thrones.[3].

This declaration marked the formal dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy. Charles then fled to Switzerland and continued to pursue regaining power while in exile. Encouraged by Hungarian nationalists, he sought twice in 1921 to reclaim the throne of Hungary but failed due to various factors including the lack of support from the Hungarian Regent Miklós Horthy, which monarchists view as treason, although critics attribute Horthy's actions to his firm footing in political reality.

After World War I, members of the family who refused to renounce the throne were exiled from Austria; the exile was repealed in 1996.


Final Decades of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire

Nineteenth century

The Habsburg Monarchy began showing signs of decline in the nineteenth century, when Emperor Francis Joseph (1848–1916) lost control of Italy and Prussia, with the latter taken over by Germany. Moreover, Russia proved to be a challenger in the Balkans. In 1867 the Habsburgs redrew the boundaries of their lands to create the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. At the same time, the task of ruling the lands became increasingly more difficult with a plethora of nationalities vying for control of their own countries amidst the absence of a unifying ideology. Hungarians, Germans, and Poles were the most vocal nationals. In addition, the Habsburgs were unable to meet the demands of the booming middle and industrial classes.

The restructuring of the monarchy spurred crises among the various Slav peoples within the monarchy. Czechs oscillated toward the Pan-Slav movement and held the Congress of Slavs in July 1908 in Prague. On the day of the 60th anniversary of the accession to the throne of the widely unpopular Francis Joseph, the discontent and criticisms spilled into riots that prompted the imposition of martial law in Prague. In 1909 Prime Minister Baron von Bienerth made an attempt to appease the nationalities by including national representatives (Landsmannminister) in his Cabinet. The Germans, on the other hand, viewed the monarchy as an extension of German culture, while the Slavs aspired to save Austria for the sake of themselves, as they comprised two-thirds of its population. However, the Poles' loyalty to the central government diluted the Slavic efforts at national representation, which consequently crystallized into largely a Czech-German standoff that polarized even political parties within Bohemia.

Twentieth century

The twentieth century brought with it the culmination in the Balkan discontent, with Bosnia and Serbia stepping up national demands. In 1913, Austria was mulling military action against Serbia but could not follow through for lack of support from Italy and Germany. Instead, the Austro-Hungarian Empire saw its territory shrink in the Balkan peninsula, with the consequence of pushing the Turks out of Europe. It was increasingly difficult to maneuver among demands of individual nations of the Empire, and when the Habsburgs took the side of Bulgaria against Serbia, they undercut their standing in Romania, which harbored antagonism toward the monarchy due to the treatment of non-Magyar nationalities in Hungary. Consequently, Romania joined with Italy and Serbia in support of anti-Habsburg actions inside the monarchy. By 1914, Vienna felt it was crucial to stem these developments in order to preserve the empire.

World War I

The declaration of the war became imminent when Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir of Francis Joseph, was assassinated by a Bosnian nationalist at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, an event that served as a pretext for curbing the Serbian threat. Supported by Germany, the Austro-Hungarian foreign office officially assigned responsibility for the assassination to the Serbian government. This was to the dislike of the Hungarian prime minister, István, Count Tisza, who feared that a military action against Serbia and the country's subjugation would increase the Serbian population in the monarchy, but once he was assured of the opposite, he joined the war club. The Serbian government agreed to all but two Austro-Hungarian demands, but the monarchy was already decided to wage war with Serbia, notwithstanding that such action could provoke a large-scale war. The European governments put forward compromise solutions, but on July 28, 1914, Francis Joseph signed the declaration of war.

The German government took advantage of the Habsburg woes and declared war against France and Russia in an effort to address its own issues with those countries. Germany and Austria-Hungary entered into a military agreement that bound the latter to give up military action against Serbia and protect the German invasion of France against Russian intervention. Austria-Hungary thus reluctantly became a military satellite of Germany.

The German public was in favor of the war as were some Polish leaders, albeit as a result of the mounting anti-Russian feeling, but the Czechs had had enough of the monarchy at this point. One of the most prominent proponents of the Czech cause, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, emigrated to western Europe, and the Pan-Slavism advocate Karel Kramář was imprisoned for treason. Ethnic Germans living in Austria had seen most of their influence dissipated; in military matters they could only follow German orders. Hungarians had the upper hand in economic affairs; they controlled the food supply. In January 1915, the foreign office went again to a Magyar, István, Count Burián, whose skills were not sufficient to keep Italy and Romania, which had territorial claims, out of the war.

In the Wake of the Sixtus Debacle

King Charles taking his oath as part of the coronation ceremonies
Budapest, December 1916.
Karl as King Charles IV of Hungary, with Zita of Bourbon-Parma and Crown Prince Otto von Habsburg.
coronation portrait, Budapest, 1916.

Two months after the public exposure of the Sixtus negotiations, the French government recognized the Czechoslovak National Council as an official agency of the Czechs, as did the United States and Great Britain. At the same time, national revolutions within the monarchy were gaining momentum. Foreign Minister Burián sent a note to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson on October 14, 1918, asking for an armistice on the basis of the Fourteen Points, which Wilson rejected on the grounds that “in view of the political development of the preceding months and, especially, in view of the fact that Czechoslovakia had been recognized as being at war with the Central Powers, the U.S. government was unable to deal on the basis of the Fourteen Points anymore.”[4]

The monarchy was on its knees, which was evidenced by the fact that serious negotiations were held with the representatives of the Austro-Hungarian nationalities rather than the monarchy’s Joint Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Both the Western European and American publics viewed the nationalist trends, partly encouraged by food shortages and the Bolshevik victory in Russia, as a democratic liberation movement. From early 1918, the Allied governments began officially advancing the activities of the emigrants from Austrian-controlled lands, particularly those of Masaryk, but the foreign assistance alone did not bring about the demise of the Habsburg Empire. It was the strife for independence of the individual nationalities within the monarchy that rendered the coexistence no longer viable.

National councils were established in all provinces of the empire which acted as national governments. On October 27, Foreign Minister Gyula, Count Andrássy, sent a new armistice note to President Wilson, accepting all the statements set forth in the U.S. note of October 18, thus recognizing the existence of an independent Czechoslovak state. The Poles declared their independence as a unified state on October 7, while the South Slavs advocated union with Serbia. The dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy was thus consummated by the end of October 1918, that is, before the war actually ended.

Legacy

Historians have been mixed in their evaluations of Charles I's reign. Helmut Rumpler, head of the Habsburg commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, has described Karl as "a dilettante, far too weak for the challenges facing him, out of his depth, and not really a politician." On the other hand, others laud him as a brave and honorable figure who strove to halt World War I. English writer Herbert Vivian wrote: "Karl was a great leader, a prince of peace, who wanted to save the world from a year of war; a statesman with ideas to save his people from the complicated problems of his empire; a king who loved his people, a fearless man, a noble soul, distinguished, a saint from whose grave blessings come." French novelist Anatole France stated: "Emperor Karl is the only decent man to come out of the war in a leadership position, yet he was a saint and no one listened to him. He sincerely wanted peace, and therefore was despised by the whole world. It was a wonderful chance that was lost."

These viewpoints give weight to the words of Pope Pius X, who told the young Karl during an audience with him: "I bless Archduke Karl, who will be the future Emperor of Austria and will help lead his countries and peoples to great honor and many blessings – but this will not become obvious until after his death."

Recognition in the Roman Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church has praised Charles I (Karl I) for putting his Christian faith first in making political decisions, and for his recognized role as a peacemaker during the war, especially after 1917. He was the first, and only, world leader during World War I who banned the use of poison gas.

Christoph Cardinal Schönborn of Vienna became the Church's sponsor for his beatification. [5] This process began in 1949 when testimony was collected in the Archdiocese of Vienna regarding his life. Beatification is a necessary step towards being declared a saint, following being declared venerable and prior to the step of canonization (recognized sainthood). In 1954 he was declared venerable.

Stages of Canonization in the Roman Catholic Church
  Servant of God   →   Venerable   →   Blessed   →   Saint  
  • On April 14, 2003, the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints in the presence of Pope John Paul II promulgated Karl of Austria's "heroic virtues."
  • On December 21, 2003, the Congregation certified, on the basis of three expert medical opinions, that a miracle in 1960 occurred through the intercession of Karl. The miracle attributed to Karl was the scientifically inexplicable healing of a Brazilian nun with debilitating varicose veins; she was able to get out of bed after she prayed for his beatification. Miracles are a requirement for beatification and canonization.
  • On October 3, 2004, Charles I (Karl I) was solemnly declared "blessed" in the ceremony of beatification conducted by Pope John Paul II.[6]
  • Currently, several possible miracles attributed to his intercession are being investigated and documented. Another miracle is required for his canonization as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.

During the Mass of Beatification on October 3, 2004, Pope John Paul II stated:

"The decisive task of Christians consists in seeking, recognizing and following God's will in all things. The Christian statesman, Karl of Austria, confronted this challenge every day. To his eyes, war appeared as "something appalling". Amid the tumult of the First World War, he strove to promote the peace initiative of my Predecessor, Benedict XV. From the beginning, the Emperor Karl conceived of his office as a holy service to his people. His chief concern was to follow the Christian vocation to holiness also in his political actions. For this reason, his thoughts turned to social assistance. May he be an example for all of us, especially for those who have political responsibilities in Europe today!"[7]

The feast day of Blessed Karl I (Charles I) is October 21, the anniversary of his marriage to Princess Zita in 1911. He proposed to her in front of the Blessed Sacrament at the Marian Shrine of Mariazell, when the tragic murder of his uncle, the Hapsburg Archduke of Austria Franz Ferdinand, was still three years away.[8]

Official Title of Karl I

Monarchical Styles of
Charles of Austria
Krone Kaiser Rudolf II Kaisertum Österreich.jpg
Reference style His Imperial Majesty
Spoken style Your Imperial Majesty
Alternative style Sire

His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,

Charles the First,

By the Grace of God, Emperor of Austrian Empire,Apostolic King of Hungary, of this name the Fourth, King of Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, and Galicia, Lodomeria, and Illyria; King of Jerusalem etc., Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany and Cracow, Duke of Lorraine and of Salzburg, of Styria, of Carinthia, of Carniola and of the Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Upper and Lower Silesia, of Duchy of Modena, Duchy of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) and Zator, of Teschen, Friuli, Dubrovnik and Zadar; Princely Count of Habsburg and Tyrol, of Kyburg, Gorizia and Gradisca; Prince of Trento and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Vorarlberg, Bregenz, Sonnenberg, etc.; Lord of Trieste, of Kotor, and in the Wendish Mark; Grosswojwod of the Voivodship of Serbia and Tamiš Banat etc. etc.


House of Habsburg-Lothringen
Born: 17 August 1887; Died: 1 April 1922
Preceded by:
Franz Joseph I
Emperor of Austria
1916-1918
Succeeded by: Directory of the Council of State
King of Hungary
1916-1918
Succeeded by: Mihály Károlyi
Provisional President of Hungary
King of Bohemia
1916-1918
Succeeded by: Tomáš Masaryk
President of Czechoslovakia
Head of the house of Habsburg
1916-1922
Succeeded by: Otto von Habsburg
Preceded by:
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Archduke of Austria-Este
1914-1917
Succeeded by: Archduke Robert of Austria-Este


See Also

Notes

  1. James Bogle. April 1996. Emperor Charles I: World War I peace campaigner, AD2000; The Thomas More Centre, Retrieved March 21, 2007.
  2. 1917, Feb.–June, The Encyclopedia of World History, Sixth edition, Retrieved March 19, 2007
  3. May 22, 2004, Emperor Karl I's Abdication Proclamation, 11 November 1918, First World War Website, retrieved March 10, 2007
  4. Austria: The end of the Habsburg empire Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Retrieved March 10, 2007
  5. Blessed Karl of Austria, Emperor and King, Beatification and Canonization Site, Retrieved March 19, 2007
  6. October 3, 2004 Emperor and mystic nun beatified British Broadcasting Corporation Online, Retrieved March 19, 2007
  7. October 3, 2004Profiles: Emmerich and Karl I, BBC News Online, Retrieved March 19, 2007
  8. Christopher Westley, October 6, 2004, An Emperor Blessed Christopher Westley Archives, Retrieved March 19, 2007


References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Flenley, Ralph. 1970. Makers of nineteenth-century Europe. Essay index reprint series. London: J.M. Dent. ISBN 0836915712
  • Harding, Bertita. 1939. Imperial twilight; the story of Karl and Zita of Hungary. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Co.
  • Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918. Berkeley; and London: University of California Press, 1974. ISBN 0520024087.
  • Zessner-Spitzenberg, Hans Karl, and Katharina Rasinger. 1963. The Emperor Charles I of Austria, a great Christian monarch; a short history of his life and death. London: K. Rasinger.

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