Difference between revisions of "Catullus" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(Imported)
 
m
(14 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Autor
+
{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{Copyedited}}
|Wikisource=Author:Gaius Valerius Catullus
+
 
|Wikiquote=Author:Catullus
+
[[Image:Catulo2.jpg|250px|right]]
|Wikicommons=Catullus
+
'''Gaius Valerius Catullus''' (ca. 84 B.C.E. – ca. 54 B.C.E.) was one of the most influential [[Rome|Roman]] poets of the first century B.C.E. Catullus is easily the most talented lyric poet in Roman literature, but his works were very controversial in his own times, remaining clouded over by controversy throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. Catullus subscribed to [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] philosophy, and his poetry, in keeping with his Epicurean beliefs, deals rather explicitly with amorous love. Moreover, Catullus fiercely criticized the political and military leaders of his generation; he openly mocked the epic style of ancient poetry, criticizing even [[Homer]] as overblown, concerned exclusively with battles and wars, and never paying any attention to the things that mattered to ordinary people. Catullus was one of the earliest poets in the history of Western literature who wrote poetry on a personal basis, focused on themes of love, family, and emotions rather than on heroes and gods.  
|Photo=Catulo2.jpg
+
{{toc}}
|Nombre=Gaius Valerius Catullus
+
For these reasons Catullus was labeled an "immoral poet" by a number of critics; he was barred from the Latin ''canon'' of poets, and was almost never taught in schools following his death. Nevertheless, his works would go on to influence some of the greatest minds of Latin literature's golden age, including [[Ovid]] and [[Virgil]]. His works would continue to attract attention throughout the history of the Roman empire into the Middle Ages in Europe. Over the centuries, he has periodically attracted attention—during the Italian [[Renaissance]], for instance, or during the period of literary [[Romanticism]]. He is, undoubtedly, one of the most important figures in literature of the ancient world.
|Gutenberg=
 
|Cervantes=
 
|DominioPu=227
 
|DomiPubli=227
 
|EbooksG=
 
|Color=#c0c0c0
 
}}
 
:''For persons with a [[cognomen]] "Catulus", see [[Lutatius]]''
 
'''Gaius Valerius Catullus''' (ca. [[84 BC]] – ca. [[54 BC]]) was one of the most influential Roman [[poet]]s of the [[1st century B.C.E.]]. His work is still widely studied, and his perennial influence continues to be seen in poetry and other forms of art.  
 
  
 
==Biography==
 
==Biography==
Little about Catullus's life is known for sure. Most sources, including [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]] and the poet [[Ovid]] (Amores III.XV), agree that he was born in or near [[Verona, Italy|Verona]], although the [[Palatine Hill]] of [[Rome]] has been mentioned as an alternative ''locus nascendi'' (place of birth). His was a leading [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] family from Verona, but he lived in [[Rome]] most of his life. In [[57 B.C.E.]], he accompanied his friend [[Gaius Memmius (Poet)|Memmius]] to [[Bithynia]], where Memmius had received a [[propraetor]]'s post. Catullus's only political office was one year on the staff of the governor of Bithynia.
 
  
It is uncertain when Catullus died. Some ancient sources tell he died from exhaustion at the age of thirty. He is traditionally said to have lived from [[84 BC]] until [[54 BC]]; these dates are based on the [[allusion]]s he makes in his poetry. Subsequently, his poems were appreciated by other poets and intellectuals, but politicians like [[Cicero]] despised them for their supposed amorality. Catullus was never considered one of the canonical school authors. Nevertheless, he greatly influenced later poets, including [[Ovid]], [[Horace]], and even [[Virgil]]; after his rediscovery in the [[Middle Ages]], Catullus again found admirers. Still, his writing style, which is frequently explicit, was shocking to many readers, both ancient and modern, and until recently it was not easy to find an equally explicit translation of some of his poems. [[Jacob Rabinowitz]] has since remedied this.
+
Little about Catullus's life is known for sure. Most sources, including [[Suetonius]] and the poet [[Ovid]] (Amores III.XV), agree that he was born in or near [[Verona]], although the [[Palatine Hill]] of [[Rome]] has been mentioned as an alternative place of birth. Catullus' family were members of the leading nobility of Verona, but Catullus himself lived in Rome most of his life. In 57 B.C.E., he accompanied his friend [[Gaius Memmius]] to Bithynia, where Memmius had received a post as a provincial administrator. Catullus' only political office was one year on the staff of the governor of Bithynia.
 +
 
 +
It is uncertain when Catullus died. Some ancient sources tell us he died from exhaustion at the age of 30. He is traditionally said to have lived from 84 until 54 B.C.E., although these dates are only based on allusions made in his poetry. Following his death, it is clear that Catullus' poems were appreciated by other poets and intellectuals, but politicians like [[Cicero]] despised them for their supposed explicitness and immorality. Perhaps for these reasons, Catullus never became one of the "canonical" Latin poets taught to all Roman schoolchildren. Nevertheless, Catullus greatly influenced later poets, including [[Ovid]], [[Horace]], and even [[Virgil]]; after his rediscovery in the Middle Ages, Catullus again found admirers.
  
 
==Poetry==
 
==Poetry==
 +
 
===Sources and organization===
 
===Sources and organization===
Catullus's poems have been preserved in three manuscripts that were copied from one (of two) copies made from a lost manuscript discovered around 1300. These three surviving copies are stored at the [[National Library]] in [[Paris]], the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford]], and the [[Vatican Library]] in Rome. These manuscripts recorded Catullus's work in an [[anthology]] of 116 ''carmina'', which can be divided into three formal parts: sixty short poems in varying metres, called ''[[polymetra]]'', eight longer poems, and forty-eight [[epigram]]s. There is no scholarly consensus on whether or not Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems, and although some scholars have argued he is responsible for the arrangement no definitive answer to the question of arrangement has ever been offered. The longer poems differ from the ''polymetra'' and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: There are seven [[hymn]]s and one mini-[[epic poetry|epic]], or epillion, the most highly-prized form for the "new poets".
+
Catullus's poems have been preserved in three manuscripts that were copied from one (of two) copies made from a lost manuscript discovered around 1300. These three surviving copies are stored at the National Library in [[Paris]], the Bodleian Library at [[Oxford]], and the Vatican Library in [[Rome]]. These manuscripts recorded Catullus's work in an anthology of 116 ''carmina'', which can be divided into three formal parts: 60 short poems in varying meters, called ''polymetra'', eight longer poems, and forty-eight epigrams. There is no scholarly consensus on whether or not Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems, and although some scholars have argued that he is responsible for the arrangement, no conclusive evidence has ever been offered. The longer poems differ from the ''polymetra'' and epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: there are seven hymns and one mini-epic, or epillion, dealing with subjects much more serious—and far less romantic—than any of Catullus' other surviving works.
  
The ''polymetra'' and the epigrams can be divided into three major [[thematic]] groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems eluding such categorization):
+
The ''polymetra'' and the epigrams can be divided roughly into four major thematic groups:
  
* poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13).
+
* Occasional poems written primarily for friends and social acquaintances (e.g., Catullus 13, a poem which is in fact a formal invitation).
* [[erotic]] poems: some of them indicate [[homosexuality|homosexual]] penchants ([[Catullus 50|50]] and [[Catullus 98|98]]), but most are about women, especially about one he calls "[[Lesbia]]" (in honor of the poetess [[Sappho]] of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], source and inspiration of many of his poems); [[philologist]]s have taken considerable efforts to discover her real identity, and many concluded that Lesbia was [[Clodia]], sister of the infamous [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] and a woman known for her generous sexuality, but this identification rests on some rather fragile assumptions. In the 116 poems found of Catullus, the poet displays a wide range of highly emotional and seemingly contradictory responses to Lesbia, ranging from tender love poems, to sadness and disappointment, and bitter [[sarcasm]].
+
* Love poems, written for a variety of love interests. The most prominent of these is a long sequence written to a woman whom Catullus refers to as "Lesbia," in honor of the poet [[Sappho]] of Lesbos. In the many poems written to Lesbia, the poet displays a wide range of emotions and themes. The poems to Lesbia include tender love poems, poems on sadness and disappointment, and even bitter works of [[sarcasm]]. Whether Lesbia was a real woman, (and, if so, who she might be) is a question often debated by scholars, but as yet there is not enough evidence to make any solid assertions on the matter.
* [[invective]]s: some of these often rude and sometimes downright [[obscene]] poems are targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem [[Catullus 30|30]]) and other lovers of [[Lesbia]], but many well known poets, [[politician]]s (e.g., [[Julius Caesar]]) and [[rhetor]]s, including [[Cicero]], are thrashed as well. However, many of these poems are humorous and craftily veil the sting of the attack. For example, Catullus writes a poem mocking a pretentious descendent of a [[freedman]] who emphasizes the letter "h" in his speech because it makes him sound more like a learned [[Greeks|Greek]] by adding unnecessary Hs to words like ''insidias'' (ambushes).
+
* Invectives: some of these often rude and sometimes downright obscene poems are targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., Catullus 30) and other lovers of Lesbia, but many well known poets, politicians, ([[Julius Caesar]] among them) and authors, including [[Cicero]], are thrashed as well.  
* [[condolences]]: some poems of Catullus are, in fact, serious in nature. One poem, [[Catullus 96|96]], comforts a friend in the death of a loved one (presumably his wife or mistress), while several others, most famously [[Catullus 101|101]], lament the death of his dear brother.
+
* Condolences: some of the shorter poems of Catullus are, in fact, gravely serious in nature. One poem, Catullus 96, comforts a friend on the death of a loved one (presumably his wife or mistress), while several others, most famously Catullus 101, lament the death of the poet's dear brother. Catullus 101 is perhaps the most moving poem in the poet's oeuvre, and is brief enough to be quoted in full:
  
All these poems describe the [[Epicurean]] lifestyle of Catullus and his friends, who, despite Catullus's temporary political post in Bithynia, lived withdrawn from [[politics]]. They were interested mainly in [[poetry]] and [[love]]. Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to have sought ''venustas'', or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems. The ancient Roman concept of ''virtus'' (i.e. of [[virtue]] that had to be proved by a political or military career), which [[Cicero]] suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late [[Roman Republic|Republic]], meant little to them.
+
{|
 +
|valign=top|
 +
:Through many nations and many seas have I come
 +
:To carry out these wretched funeral rites, brother,
 +
:That at last I may give you this final gift in death
 +
:And that I might speak in vain to silent ashes.
 +
:Since fortune has borne you, yourself, away from me.
 +
:Oh, poor brother, snatched unfairly away from me,
 +
:Now, though, even these, which from antiquity and in the custom of our
 +
:parents, have been handed down, a gift of sadness in the rites, accept
 +
:them, flowing with many brotherly tears, And for eternity, my brother,
 +
:hail and farewell.
 +
|valign=top|
 +
:Multas per gentes et multa per aequora vectus
 +
:advenio has miseras, frater, ad inferias,
 +
:ut te postremo donarem munere mortis
 +
:et mutam nequiquam alloquerer cinerem.
 +
:Quandoquidem fortuna mihi tete abstulit ipsum.
 +
:Heu miser indigne frater adempte mihi,
 +
:nunc tamen interea haec, prisco quae more parentum
 +
:tradita sunt tristi munere ad inferias,
 +
:accipe fraterno multum manantia fletu,
 +
:atque in perpetuum, frater, ave atque vale.
 +
|}
  
But it is not the traditional notions Catullus rejects, merely their monopolized application to the ''[[vita activa]]'' of politics and [[war]]. Indeed, he tries to reinvent these notions from a personal point of view and to introduce them into human relationships. For example, he applies the word ''fides'', which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love. So, despite seeming frivolity of his lifestyle, Catullus measured himself and his friends by quite ambitious standards.
+
Catullus' poetry and particularly his shorter, lighter work were deeply influenced by his association with the [[Epicurean]] philosophy and lifestyle. Epicurean philosophy was focused on the notion of "pleasure," and teaches that the highest achievement any one can hope for is to lead a pleasurable life. Epicureans like Catullus have frequently been misunderstood as immoral pleasure-mongers, who were interested wholly in themselves and had no concerns for anything other than being physically pleased. This, however, is a gross misinterpretation of Epicurean thought; in reality, Epicureans were concerned with the highest forms of pleasure: the pleasure of leading a good life, the pleasure of being a good man. They believed that pleasure, and hence, goodness, could best be found through poetry and romantic love, and it is perhaps for their focus on amorous love that they were criticized in their times and continue to be misunderstood in our own. Catullus seems to have sought most for the Epicurean virtue ''venustas'', or charm, and his poetry is most certainly some of the most charming in all of the rather staid annals of Latin literature. The ancient Roman concept of ''virtus'' (i.e. of virtue, proved by triumphs in battle or politics) that was championed by [[Cicero]] meant little to the Epicureans, and Catullus would frequently satirize politicians and military heroes, criticizing them for being proud and having no understanding of the finer things in life.
 +
 
 +
In particular, Catullus rejects the notion that one can only lead a good life through politics or warfare, and he attempts, through his poetry, to re-invent Roman ''virtus'' from a personal point of view, focused not on battlefields or empires, but on human relationships, and the matters of love and life that pertain to everyone. Catullus, for instance, frequently applies the word ''fides'', which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love.
  
 
===Intellectual influences===
 
===Intellectual influences===
Catullus's [[poetry]] was greatly influenced by the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] ''[[neoteroi]]'', or "new poets". [[Callimachus]] influenced Catullus especially, having propagated a new style of poetry which deliberately turned away from the classical [[epic poetry]] in the tradition of [[Homer]]. Catullus and [[Callimachus]] did not describe the feats of ancient [[hero]]es and [[god]]s (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art. Catullus described his work as ''expolitum'', or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed.  
+
Catullus's poetry was greatly influenced by the Greek ''neoteroi'', or "new poets." [[Callimachus]] influenced Catullus especially, having propagated a new style of poetry which deliberately turned away from the classical epic poetry in the tradition of [[Homer]]. Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art.  
  
Catullus was also an admirer of [[Sappho]], a poetess of the [[7th century BC]], and is the source for much of what we know or infer about her. [[Catullus 51]] is a translation of [[Sappho 31]], and [[Catullus 61|61]] and [[Catullus 62|62]] are certainly inspired by and perhaps translated directly from lost works of Sappho.  Both of the latter are ''[[Epithalamium|epithalamia]]'', a form of [[laudatory]] or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho had been famous for but that had gone out of fashion in the intervening centuries. Catullus sometimes used a meter that Sappho developed, called the [[Sapphic strophe]]. In fact, Catullus may have brought about a substantial revival of that form in Rome.
+
Catullus was also an admirer of [[Sappho]], a poet of the seventh century B.C.E. Catullus is, in fact, one of the most important sources for Sappho scholarship, as he is the source for much of what we know or can infer about her. Catullus 51 is a direct translation of Sappho 31, a work which remains only in fragments in the original Greek and is only known to us in full thanks to Catullus. The poem, in [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[English language|English]], reads as follows:
  
 +
{|
 +
|valign=top|
 +
:That man seems to me to be equal to a god,
 +
:That man, if it is right to say, seems to surpass the gods,
 +
:who sitting opposite to you repeatedly looks at you
 +
:and hears
  
 +
:your sweet laughter, something which robs miserable me
 +
:of all feelings: for as soon as I look
 +
:at you, Lesbia, no voice remains
 +
:in my mouth.
  
==Works==
+
:But the tongue is paralyzed, a fine fire
*[[s:Catullus 1 | English translation of Catullus 1]]
+
:spreads down through my limbs, the ears ring with their
*[[s:la:Catullus 1 | Latin text of Catullus 1]]
+
:very own sound, my eyes veiled
*Some additional English translations are available at [[wikisource]] at [[s:Carmina|Carmina]].
+
:in a double darkness.
*Additional Latin texts can be found at [[b:la:Carmina | Wikibooks]] and [[s:la:Categoria:Syllabae | Wikisource]]
+
 
 +
:Idleness, Catullus, is your trouble;
 +
:idleness is what delights you and moves you to passion;
 +
:idleness has proved ere now the ruin of kings and
 +
:prosperous cities.
 +
|valign=top|
 +
:Ille mi par esse deo videtur,
 +
:ille, si fas est, superare divos,
 +
:qui sedens adversus identidem te
 +
:spectat et audit
 +
:dulce ridentem, misero quod omnis
 +
:eripit sensus mihi: nam simul te,
 +
:Lesbia, aspexi, nihil est super mi
 +
:vocis in ore,
 +
:lingua sed torpet, tenuis sub artus
 +
:flamma demanat, sonitu suopte
 +
:tintinant aures, gemina et teguntur
 +
:lumina nocte.
 +
:Otium, Catulle, tibi molestum est:
 +
:otio exsultas nimiumque gestis:
 +
:otium et reges prius et beatas
 +
:perdidit urbes.
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
In addition to this, Catullus 61 and Catullus 62 are certainly inspired by and perhaps translated directly from lost works of Sappho. Both of the latter are ''epithalamia'', a form of wedding-poetry that Sappho had been famous for but that had gone out of fashion in the intervening centuries. Catullus sometimes used a meter that Sappho developed, called the Sapphic strophe. The Sapphic strophe is a rather difficult meter to use, as it depends upon the length of vowels rather than on syllables. That is, vowels in Sapphic meter may have to follow a pattern such as: long vowel, long vowel, short, long, short. Although this type of measure was natural in ancient Greek, where vowel length was explicitly marked, it was already quite difficult in Latin, and is extremely difficult to render in modern English.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
+
All links retrieved January 19, 2017.
{{wikisource author}}
+
* [http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/ Catullus] – Catullus' work in Latin and over 25 other languages at ''Catullus Translations''
* Catullus' work in Latin and over 25 other languages at ''Catullus Translations'': http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/
+
* [http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/forum/ Gaius Valerius Catullus]
* Find other Catullus-minded people and discuss his works with them at the ''Catullus Forum'': http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/forum/
+
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/catullus.shtml C. Valerivs Catvllvs] – The complete poems of Catullus at The Latin Library
* The complete poems of Catullus at ''[[The Latin Library]]'': http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/catullus.shtml
+
* [http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/08/moday_musing_.html Summer Lyrics] Short essay on Catullus by Morgan Meis of ''3 Quarks Daily''
*[http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/08/moday_musing_.html Summer Lyrics] Short essay on Catullus by Morgan Meis of [http://3quarksdaily.com ''3 Quarks Daily'']
+
* [http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/list.html Complete List of the Poems of Catullus] – Poems of Catullus in Latin/English:
* Poems of Catullus in Latin/English: <br>http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/list.html
+
 
 +
 
 +
[[Category:Writers and poets]]
 +
 
  
[[Category: Art, music, literature, sports and leisure]]
 
 
{{credit|67487743}}
 
{{credit|67487743}}

Revision as of 16:31, 19 January 2017


Catulo2.jpg

Gaius Valerius Catullus (ca. 84 B.C.E. – ca. 54 B.C.E.) was one of the most influential Roman poets of the first century B.C.E. Catullus is easily the most talented lyric poet in Roman literature, but his works were very controversial in his own times, remaining clouded over by controversy throughout the Middle Ages. Catullus subscribed to Epicurean philosophy, and his poetry, in keeping with his Epicurean beliefs, deals rather explicitly with amorous love. Moreover, Catullus fiercely criticized the political and military leaders of his generation; he openly mocked the epic style of ancient poetry, criticizing even Homer as overblown, concerned exclusively with battles and wars, and never paying any attention to the things that mattered to ordinary people. Catullus was one of the earliest poets in the history of Western literature who wrote poetry on a personal basis, focused on themes of love, family, and emotions rather than on heroes and gods.

For these reasons Catullus was labeled an "immoral poet" by a number of critics; he was barred from the Latin canon of poets, and was almost never taught in schools following his death. Nevertheless, his works would go on to influence some of the greatest minds of Latin literature's golden age, including Ovid and Virgil. His works would continue to attract attention throughout the history of the Roman empire into the Middle Ages in Europe. Over the centuries, he has periodically attracted attention—during the Italian Renaissance, for instance, or during the period of literary Romanticism. He is, undoubtedly, one of the most important figures in literature of the ancient world.

Biography

Little about Catullus's life is known for sure. Most sources, including Suetonius and the poet Ovid (Amores III.XV), agree that he was born in or near Verona, although the Palatine Hill of Rome has been mentioned as an alternative place of birth. Catullus' family were members of the leading nobility of Verona, but Catullus himself lived in Rome most of his life. In 57 B.C.E., he accompanied his friend Gaius Memmius to Bithynia, where Memmius had received a post as a provincial administrator. Catullus' only political office was one year on the staff of the governor of Bithynia.

It is uncertain when Catullus died. Some ancient sources tell us he died from exhaustion at the age of 30. He is traditionally said to have lived from 84 until 54 B.C.E., although these dates are only based on allusions made in his poetry. Following his death, it is clear that Catullus' poems were appreciated by other poets and intellectuals, but politicians like Cicero despised them for their supposed explicitness and immorality. Perhaps for these reasons, Catullus never became one of the "canonical" Latin poets taught to all Roman schoolchildren. Nevertheless, Catullus greatly influenced later poets, including Ovid, Horace, and even Virgil; after his rediscovery in the Middle Ages, Catullus again found admirers.

Poetry

Sources and organization

Catullus's poems have been preserved in three manuscripts that were copied from one (of two) copies made from a lost manuscript discovered around 1300. These three surviving copies are stored at the National Library in Paris, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and the Vatican Library in Rome. These manuscripts recorded Catullus's work in an anthology of 116 carmina, which can be divided into three formal parts: 60 short poems in varying meters, called polymetra, eight longer poems, and forty-eight epigrams. There is no scholarly consensus on whether or not Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems, and although some scholars have argued that he is responsible for the arrangement, no conclusive evidence has ever been offered. The longer poems differ from the polymetra and epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: there are seven hymns and one mini-epic, or epillion, dealing with subjects much more serious—and far less romantic—than any of Catullus' other surviving works.

The polymetra and the epigrams can be divided roughly into four major thematic groups:

  • Occasional poems written primarily for friends and social acquaintances (e.g., Catullus 13, a poem which is in fact a formal invitation).
  • Love poems, written for a variety of love interests. The most prominent of these is a long sequence written to a woman whom Catullus refers to as "Lesbia," in honor of the poet Sappho of Lesbos. In the many poems written to Lesbia, the poet displays a wide range of emotions and themes. The poems to Lesbia include tender love poems, poems on sadness and disappointment, and even bitter works of sarcasm. Whether Lesbia was a real woman, (and, if so, who she might be) is a question often debated by scholars, but as yet there is not enough evidence to make any solid assertions on the matter.
  • Invectives: some of these often rude and sometimes downright obscene poems are targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., Catullus 30) and other lovers of Lesbia, but many well known poets, politicians, (Julius Caesar among them) and authors, including Cicero, are thrashed as well.
  • Condolences: some of the shorter poems of Catullus are, in fact, gravely serious in nature. One poem, Catullus 96, comforts a friend on the death of a loved one (presumably his wife or mistress), while several others, most famously Catullus 101, lament the death of the poet's dear brother. Catullus 101 is perhaps the most moving poem in the poet's oeuvre, and is brief enough to be quoted in full:
Through many nations and many seas have I come
To carry out these wretched funeral rites, brother,
That at last I may give you this final gift in death
And that I might speak in vain to silent ashes.
Since fortune has borne you, yourself, away from me.
Oh, poor brother, snatched unfairly away from me,
Now, though, even these, which from antiquity and in the custom of our
parents, have been handed down, a gift of sadness in the rites, accept
them, flowing with many brotherly tears, And for eternity, my brother,
hail and farewell.
Multas per gentes et multa per aequora vectus
advenio has miseras, frater, ad inferias,
ut te postremo donarem munere mortis
et mutam nequiquam alloquerer cinerem.
Quandoquidem fortuna mihi tete abstulit ipsum.
Heu miser indigne frater adempte mihi,
nunc tamen interea haec, prisco quae more parentum
tradita sunt tristi munere ad inferias,
accipe fraterno multum manantia fletu,
atque in perpetuum, frater, ave atque vale.

Catullus' poetry and particularly his shorter, lighter work were deeply influenced by his association with the Epicurean philosophy and lifestyle. Epicurean philosophy was focused on the notion of "pleasure," and teaches that the highest achievement any one can hope for is to lead a pleasurable life. Epicureans like Catullus have frequently been misunderstood as immoral pleasure-mongers, who were interested wholly in themselves and had no concerns for anything other than being physically pleased. This, however, is a gross misinterpretation of Epicurean thought; in reality, Epicureans were concerned with the highest forms of pleasure: the pleasure of leading a good life, the pleasure of being a good man. They believed that pleasure, and hence, goodness, could best be found through poetry and romantic love, and it is perhaps for their focus on amorous love that they were criticized in their times and continue to be misunderstood in our own. Catullus seems to have sought most for the Epicurean virtue venustas, or charm, and his poetry is most certainly some of the most charming in all of the rather staid annals of Latin literature. The ancient Roman concept of virtus (i.e. of virtue, proved by triumphs in battle or politics) that was championed by Cicero meant little to the Epicureans, and Catullus would frequently satirize politicians and military heroes, criticizing them for being proud and having no understanding of the finer things in life.

In particular, Catullus rejects the notion that one can only lead a good life through politics or warfare, and he attempts, through his poetry, to re-invent Roman virtus from a personal point of view, focused not on battlefields or empires, but on human relationships, and the matters of love and life that pertain to everyone. Catullus, for instance, frequently applies the word fides, which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love.

Intellectual influences

Catullus's poetry was greatly influenced by the Greek neoteroi, or "new poets." Callimachus influenced Catullus especially, having propagated a new style of poetry which deliberately turned away from the classical epic poetry in the tradition of Homer. Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art.

Catullus was also an admirer of Sappho, a poet of the seventh century B.C.E. Catullus is, in fact, one of the most important sources for Sappho scholarship, as he is the source for much of what we know or can infer about her. Catullus 51 is a direct translation of Sappho 31, a work which remains only in fragments in the original Greek and is only known to us in full thanks to Catullus. The poem, in Latin and English, reads as follows:

That man seems to me to be equal to a god,
That man, if it is right to say, seems to surpass the gods,
who sitting opposite to you repeatedly looks at you
and hears
your sweet laughter, something which robs miserable me
of all feelings: for as soon as I look
at you, Lesbia, no voice remains
in my mouth.
But the tongue is paralyzed, a fine fire
spreads down through my limbs, the ears ring with their
very own sound, my eyes veiled
in a double darkness.
Idleness, Catullus, is your trouble;
idleness is what delights you and moves you to passion;
idleness has proved ere now the ruin of kings and
prosperous cities.
Ille mi par esse deo videtur,
ille, si fas est, superare divos,
qui sedens adversus identidem te
spectat et audit
dulce ridentem, misero quod omnis
eripit sensus mihi: nam simul te,
Lesbia, aspexi, nihil est super mi
vocis in ore,
lingua sed torpet, tenuis sub artus
flamma demanat, sonitu suopte
tintinant aures, gemina et teguntur
lumina nocte.
Otium, Catulle, tibi molestum est:
otio exsultas nimiumque gestis:
otium et reges prius et beatas
perdidit urbes.

In addition to this, Catullus 61 and Catullus 62 are certainly inspired by and perhaps translated directly from lost works of Sappho. Both of the latter are epithalamia, a form of wedding-poetry that Sappho had been famous for but that had gone out of fashion in the intervening centuries. Catullus sometimes used a meter that Sappho developed, called the Sapphic strophe. The Sapphic strophe is a rather difficult meter to use, as it depends upon the length of vowels rather than on syllables. That is, vowels in Sapphic meter may have to follow a pattern such as: long vowel, long vowel, short, long, short. Although this type of measure was natural in ancient Greek, where vowel length was explicitly marked, it was already quite difficult in Latin, and is extremely difficult to render in modern English.

External links

All links retrieved January 19, 2017.


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.