Canonization

Canonization is the process of posthumously declaring someone to be saint, as exercised by a canonical Christian authority. The process resembles a legal trial, where the supporters of the cause must demonstrate the sanctity of their proposed candidate. The confirmation of an individual's sainthood is both theologically and practically significant, as it is, in essence, a public declaration that they remain effective intercessors on behalf of the living. At the same time, it affirms the propriety of venerating them, under the theological assumption that all such prayers will be redirected to God.

It is currently practised by the Catholic Church (including the Eastern Rite Catholic Churches), by the Eastern Orthodox Church, and by the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England does not rule out canonization, but it has only ever canonized one man: Charles I of England).

Roman Catholicism

The Roman Catholic church did not always have a process of canonization. Initially, the term "saint" was applied informally (as the plural form was often used in Scripture simply for designating the faithful), such that many early saints (even those who were the subjects of popular cults) were not formally canonized. The process proper began in the tenth century CE, when the Roman Pontiff demanded that all saints throughout his jurisdiction be added to an official list ("canon"), which was to be kept in Rome. The first saint to be added to this official list was Saint Ulrich of Augsburg, who was canonized in 993. Over time, this process has become more rigorous, requiring detailed study of the lives, writings, and posthumous miracles of prospective candidates. Subjects who pass an inital stage of scrutiny are first beatified and, only later (and with further analysis) become formally canonized as saints.

Due to its theological and practical significance, canonization is taken very seriously. Most Catholic theologians hold canonization to be an infallible act of the Church. For example, Thomas Aquinas (arguably the most influential theologian of the second millenium of Christianity) says, "Since the honor we pay the saints is in a certain sense a profession of faith, i.e., a belief in the glory of the Saints [quâ sanctorum gloriam credimus] we must piously believe that in this matter also the judgment of the Church is not liable to error."

Historical development of the process

The first instances of beatification and canonization were directed toward martyrs around whom informal cults had developed. While these cults began as "grass-roots" phenomena, they were often patronized by local clerical officials, as “the majority of well-documented devotions were located at the level of local sainthood, that is were the religious conceptions of the faithful and the requirements of the clergy intersected” (Vauchez, 157). However, even at this level, the bishops saw it necessary to evaluate and legitemize these cults. In doing so, the bishop would inquire into the circumstances of the purported martyr's death and, finding it ideologically sound, would send the martyr's name and an account of their passing to neighboring churches, so that, in event of approval by their respective bishops, the cultus of the martyr might also extend to their churches (Beccari). In the following centuries, similar veneration came to be paid to "confessors" (those who died peacefully after a life of heroic virtue) with a similarly non-standardized system of patronage by the local ecclesiastical authorities (see Weinstein and Bell, 1982; Brown, 1981; Wilson, 1983).

From approximately 500 to 900 C.E., large regional variations existed in these informal "canonization" policies. In some jurisdictions, bishops were permitted to grant martyrs and confessors public ecclesiastical honor, whereas in other areas only primates and patriarchs were allowed this responsibility (Beccari). However, in all cases, this recognition was highly provisional, in that the attendant honors were only authorized for the local territory over which the grantors held jurisdiction (ibid). Though the Bishop of Rome (Pope) could conceivable have vetoed the development of any of these movements, as he alone could permit or command the Universal (Roman Catholic) Church, this rarely happened - likely because these cults were important to the Church's continuing conversion project. However, abuses began to creep into this informal system, due to popular fervour and "the carelessness of some bishops in inquiring into the lives of those whom they permitted to be honored as saints" (ibid). As Michael Goodich describes, "the power of a saint rested upon his conformity to a tradition of sainthood accepted by the community he served. If that group, for the moment, stood outside the papal sphere, he might still have been regarded as holy, despite the displeasure of the authorities” (Goodich, 300).

As a result, by the close of the eleventh century the popes found it necessary to restrict episcopal authority on this point and decreed that the virtues and miracles of persons proposed for public veneration should be examined in councils (Beccari). Even after these decrees, public (and local ecclesiastical) compliance was fitful at best, as this bureaucratic acceptance was still seen as an optional component of these cults. Resultantly, the “the approval of the Holy See was sought only to confer extra lustre on certain cults" rather than being the de facto source of legitimation (Vauchez 22-23). Responding to this, Pope Alexander III (r. 1159-1181) denied the viability of popular veneration, declaring: "For the future you will not presume to pay him [unauthorized "saints"] reverence, as, even though miracles were worked through him, it would not allow you to revere him as a saint unless with the authority of the Roman Church" (quoted in Kleinburg, 189). Thus, the pope "for the first time reserved the right of beatification" (Beccari).

From this point, complex and involved papal rite of canonization was born. Though social and economic concerns figured into the process (see Goodich, 1975 and Theilmann, 1990 for more details on this aspect), the primary issue for the Holy See was theological legitimacy. This led to the development of an involved process of inquiry (described below) which “resembled a lawsuit between the Pope and the petitioners, in which… the papal party acted as judge as well as defendant” (Toynebee 157). The aim was to determine the propriety of these individual's lives (and deaths) as objects of popular veneration and to make sure that their folk hagiographies were in keeping with the Church's theological aims.

Some bishops did not obey this edict (at least as regards beatification), as it contradicted their previously established rights and spheres of authority, so "Pope Urban VIII published, in 1634, a Bull which put an end to all discussion by reserving to the Holy See exclusively not only its immemorial right of canonization, but also that of beatification" (Beccari).

The Process of Canonization

Historical Process of Beatification and Canonization

The process of beatification and canonization has undergone various changes in the history of the Catholic Church. Below, we will outline the process as it was in 1914, which is representative of its maximum level of complexity and sophistication (these regulations have been somewhat relaxed since Pope John Paul II reforms to canon law in 1983 (discussed below)). It should be noted that the level of scrutiny suggested below has remained consistent since at least the time of Pope Urban VIII .

• Note: The causes of martyrs were handled somewhat differently from those of confessors or virgins, so will be handled separately.

The Beatification of Confessors

In order to secure beatification (the most important and difficult step in the process of canonization) the regular procedure was as follows:

1. Choosing of a vice-postulator by the postulator-general of the cause, to promote all the judicial inquiries necessary in places outside of Rome. Such inquiries are instituted by the local episcopal authority.
2. The preparation of the inquiries (processus) all of which are carried on by the ordinary episcopal authority. They are of three kinds: (a) Informative inquiries regard the reputation for sanctity and miracles of the servants of God, not only in general, but also in particular instances; there may be several such inquiries if the witnesses to be examined belong to different dioceses. (b) Processes de non cultu, which are instituted to prove that the decrees of Pope Urban VIII regarding the prohibition of public worship of servants of God before their beatification have been obeyed; they are generally conducted by the bishop of the place where the relics of the servant of God are preserved. (c) Other inquiries (known as Processiculi diligentiarum), which have for their object the writings attributed to the person whose beatification is in question; they vary in number according to the dioceses where such writings are found, or are thought likely to be found, and may not be judicially executed before an "Instruction" is obtained from the promotor of the Faith by the postulator-general and by him sent to the bishop in question.
3. The results of all these inquiries are sent to the Congregation of Rites in Rome, in the charge of a messenger (portitor) chosen by the judges (or through some other secure channel).
4. They are opened, translated if necessary into Italian, a public copy is made, and a cardinal is deputed by the pope as relator or ponens of the cause. For all of these steps, rescripts of the congregation, confirmed by the pope, must be obtained.
5. The writings of the servant of God are next revised by theologians appointed by the cardinal relator himself, authorized to so act by a special rescript. Meanwhile, the advocate and the procurator of the cause, chosen by the postulator-general, have prepared all the documents that concern the introduction of the cause (positio super introductione causae). These consist of (a) a summary of the informative processes, (b) an information, (c) answers to the observations or difficulties of the promotor of the Faith sent by him to the Postulator.
6. This collection of documents (positio) is printed and distributed to the cardinals of the Congregation of Rites forty days before the date assigned for their discussion.
7. If nothing contrary to faith and morals is found in the writings of the servant of God, a decree is published, authorizing further action (quod in causâ procedi possit ad ulteriora), i. e., the discussion of the matter (dubium) of appointment or non-appointment of a commission for the introduction of the cause.
8. At the time fixed by the Congregation of Rites, an ordinary meeting (congregatio) is held in which this appointment is debated by the cardinals of the aforesaid congregation and its officials, but without the vote or participation of the consultors, though this privilege is always granted them by prescript.
9. If in this meeting the cardinals favour the appointment of the aforesaid commission, a decree to that effect is promulgated, and the pope signs it, but, according to custom, with his baptismal name, not with that of his pontificate. Thenceforward, the servant of God is judicially given the title of Venerable.
10. A petition is then presented asking remissorial letters for the bishops in partibus (outside of Rome), authorizing them to set on foot by Apostolic authority, the inquiry (processus) with regard to the fame of sanctity and miracles in general. This permission is granted by rescript, and such remissorial letters are prepared and sent to the bishops by the postulator-general. In case the eye-witnesses be of advanced age, other remissorial letters are usually granted for the purpose of opening a process known as "inchoative" concerning the particular virtues of miracles of the person in question. This is done in order that the proofs may not be lost (ne pereant probationes), and such inchoative process precedes that upon the miracles and virtues in general.
11. While the Apostolic process concerning the reputation of sanctity is under way outside of Rome, documents are being prepared by the procurator of the cause for the discussion de non cultu, or absence of cultus, and at the appointed time an ordinary meeting (congregatio) is held during which the matter is investigated; if it be found that the decree of Urban VIII has been complied with, another decree authorizes further steps being taken.
12. When the inquiry concerning the reputation of sanctity (super famâ) has arrived in Rome, it is opened (as already described in speaking of the ordinary processes, and with the same formalities in regard to rescripts), then translated into Italian, summarized, and declared valid. The documents super famâ in general are prepared by the advocate, and at the proper time, in an ordinary meeting of the cardinals of the Congregation of Rites, they discuss whether there is evidence of a general repute for sanctity and miracles of this servant of God. If the answer is favourable, a decree embodying this result is published.
13. New remissorial letters are then sent to the bishops in partibus for Apostolical processes with regard to the reputation for sanctity and miracles in particular. These processes must be finished within eighteen months and when they are received in Rome are opened, as above described, and by virtue of an equal number of rescripts, by the cardinal prefect, translated into Italian, and their summary authenticated by the Chancellor of the Congregation of Rites.
14. The advocate of the cause next prepares the documents (positio) which have reference to the discussion of the validity of all the preceding processes, informative and Apostolic.
15. This discussion is held in a meeting that is called congregatio rotalis from the fact that it is only judges of the Roman Rota who vote. If the difficulties of the promotor of the Faith are satisfactorily answered, the decree establishing the validity of the inquiries or processes is published.
16. Meanwhile all necessary preparation is made for the discussion of the question (dubium): Is there evidence that the venerable servant of God practiced virtues both theological and cardinal, and in an heroic degree? (An constet de virtutibus Ven. servi Dei, tam theologicis quam cardinalibus, in heroico gradu?) In the causes of confessors this step is of primary importance. The point is discussed in three meetings or congregations called respectively, ante-preparatory, preparatory, and general. The first of these meetings is held in the palace of the cardinal relator (reporter) of the cause, and in it only consultors of the Congregation of Sacred Rites, and with their chairman, or prefect, presiding, the third is also held in the Vatican, and at it the pope presides, and both cardinals and consultors vote. For each of these congregations the advocate of the cause prepares and prints official reports (positiones), called respectively report, new report, final report, concerning the virtues, etc., — positio, positio nova, positio novissima, super virtutibus. In each case, before proceeding to the subsequent meeting, a majority of the consultors must decide that the difficulties of the promotor of the Faith have been satisfactorily solved.
17. When the Congregation of Rites in the above described general meeting has decided favourably, the pope is asked to sign the solemn decree which asserts that there exists evidence of the heroic virtues of the servant of God. This decree is not published until after the pope, having commended the matter to God in prayer, gives a final consent and confirms by his supreme sentence the decision of the congregation.
18. The miracles now remain to be proved, of which two of the first class are required in case the practice of virtues in the heroic degree has been proved, in both ordinary and Apostolic inquiries or processes by eyewitnesses — three, if the eyewitnesses were found only in the ordinary processes; four, if the virtues were proven only by hearsay (de auditu) witnesses. If the miracles have been sufficiently proven in the Apostolic processes (super virtutibus) already declared valid, steps are taken at once to prepare the documents with regard to miracles (super miraculis). If in the Apostolic processes only general mention has been made of the miracles, new Apostolic processes must be opened, and conducted after the manner already described for proving the practice of virtues in an heroic degree.
19. The discussion of the particular miracles proceeds in exactly the same way and in the same order as that of the virtues. If the decisions be favourable, the general meeting of the congregation is followed by a decree, confirmed by the pope, in which it is announced that there is proof of miracles. It must be noted here that in the positio for the ante-preparatory congregation there are required, and are printed, opinions of two physicians, one of whom has been chosen by the postulator, the other by the Congregation of Rites. Of the three reports (positiones) above mentioned, and which are now also required, the first is prepared in the usual way; the second consists of an exposition of the heroic virtues of the servant of God. an information, and a reply to later observations of the promotor of the Faith; the last consists only of an answer to his final observations.
20. When the miracles have been proved, another meeting of the Congregation of Rites is held in which it is debated once, and only once, whether or not, given the approbation of the virtues and miracles, it is safe to proceed with the solemnities of beatification. If a majority of the consultors be favourable, a decree to this effect is issued by the pope, and at the time appointed by him the solemn beatification of the servant of God takes place in the Vatican Basilica, on which occasion a pontifical Brief is issued permitting the public cultus and veneration of the beatified person now known as Blessed (Beatus).

The Beatification of Martyrs

1. The causes of martyrs are conducted in the same way as those of confessors as far as the informative processes and those de non cultu and ad introductionem causae are concerned. But when once the commission of introduction has been appointed they advance much more rapidly.
2. No remissorial letters are granted for Apostolic processes concerning the general reputation for martyrdom and miracles; the letters sent call for an immediate investigation into the fact of martyrdom, its motive, and the particular miracles alleged. There is no longer a discussion of the general reputation for martyrdom or miracles.
3. The miracles are not discussed, as formerly, in separate meetings, but in the same meetings that deal with the fact and the motive of the martyrdom.
4. The miracles (signa) required are not those of the first class; those of the second class suffice, nor is their number determined. On some occasions the decision as to miracles has been entirely dispensed with.
5. The discussion as to martyrdoms and miracles, formerly held in three meetings or congregations, viz. the ante-preparatory, preparatory, and general, is now usually conducted, through a dispensation to be had in each instance from the sovereign pontiff, in a single congregation known as particularis, or special. It consists of six or seven cardinals of the Congregation of Rites and four or five prelates especially deputed by the pope. There is but one positio prepared in the usual way; if there be an affirmative majority a decree is issued concerning the proof of martyrdom, the cause of martyrdom, and miracles. (Constare de Martyrio, causâ Martyrii et signis.)
6. The final stage is a discussion of the security (super tuto) with which advance to beatification may be made, as in the case of confessors; the solemn beatification then follows.

Confirmation of cult

This procedure is followed in all cases of formal beatification in causes of both confessors and martyrs proposed in the ordinary way (per viam non cultus). Those proposed as coming under the definition of cases excepted (casus excepti) by Urban VIII are treated in another way. In such cases it must be proved that an immemorial public veneration (at least for 100 years before the promulgation, in 1640, of the decrees of Urban VIII) has been paid the servant of God, whether confessor or martyr. Such cause is proposed under the title of "confirmation of veneration" (de confirmatione cultus); it is dealt with in an ordinary meeting of the Congregation of Rites. When the difficulties of the promotor of the Faith have been satisfied, a pontifical decree confirming the cultus is promulgated. Beatification of this kind is called equivalent or virtual.

The Canonization of Confessors or Martyrs

The canonization of confessors or martyrs may be taken up as soon as two miracles are reported to have been worked at their intercession, after the pontifical permission of public veneration as described above. At this stage it is only required that the two miracles worked after the permission awarding a public cultus be discussed in three meetings of the congregation. The discussion proceeds in the ordinary way; if the miracles be confirmed another meeting (super tuto) is held. The pope then issues a Bull of Canonization in which he not only permits, but commands, the public cultus, or veneration, of the saint.

It may be easily conjectured that considerable time must elapse before any cause of beatification or canonization can be conducted, from the first steps of the information, inquiry, or process, to the issuing of the decree super tuto. According to the constitution of this Congregation, more than one important discussion (dubia maiora) cannot be proposed at the same time. It must be remembered

• that the same cardinals and consultors must vote in all discussions;
• that there is but one promotor of the Faith and one sub-promotor, who alone have charge of all observations to be made with regard to the dubia;
• that these cardinals and consultors have to treat questions of ritual as well as processes of canonization and beatification.

To execute all this business there is but one weekly meeting (congressus), a kind of minor congregation in which only the cardinal prefect and the major officials vote; in it less important and practical questions are settled regarding rites as well as causes, and answers are given, and rescripts which the pope afterwards verbally approves. The other meetings of the congregation (ordinary, rotal, and "upon virtues and miracles") may be as few as sixteen in the course of the year. Some other cause must therefore be found for the slow progress of causes of beatification or canonization than a lack of good will or activity on the part of the Congregation of Rites.

Current practice

The 1983 reform of the Catholic Church's canon law has streamlined the procedure considerably compared to the process carried out previously. The new process was established by Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic constitution of January 25, 1983, Divinus Perfectionis Magister, and by Pietro Cardinal Palazzini, Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, in the New Laws for the Causes of Saints, published on February 7, 1983.

The process begins at the diocesan level, with the bishop giving permission to open an investigation of the virtues of the person who is suspected of having been a saint. This investigation may not open until permission is given by the Vatican, and not sooner than five years after the death of the person being investigated. However, the pope has the authority to waive this waiting period, as was done for Mother Teresa by Pope John Paul II as well as for John Paul II himself by his immediate successor, Benedict XVI. When sufficient information has been gathered, the subject of the investigation is called "Servant of God", and the process is transferred to the Roman Curia—the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints—where it is assigned a postulator, whose task is to gather all information about the life of the Servant of God. When enough information has been gathered, the congregation will recommend to the pope that he make a proclamation of the Servant of God's heroic virtue, which entitles him or her to receive the title "Venerable". A Venerable has as of yet no feast day, but prayer cards may be printed to encourage the faithful to pray for a miracle wrought by his or her intercession.

The next step depends on whether the Venerable is a martyr. For a martyr, the pope has only to make a declaration of martyrdom, which then allows beatification, yielding the title "Blessed" and a feast day in the Blessed's home diocese and perhaps some other local calendars. If the Venerable was not a martyr, it must be proven that a miracle has taken place by his or her intercession. Today, these miracles are almost always miraculous cures, as these are the easiest to establish based on the Catholic Church's requirements for a "miracle." (The patient was sick, there was no known cure for the ailment, prayers were directed to the Venerable, the patient was cured, and doctors cannot explain it.)

To pass from Blessed to Saint, one (more) miracle is necessary. A saint's feast day is considered universal, and may be celebrated anywhere within the Catholic church, although it may or may not appear on the general calendar.

In the case of persons that common usage has called saints from "time immemorial" (in practice, since before 1500 or so), the Church may carry out a "confirmation of cultus", which is much simpler. For example, Saint Hermann Joseph had his veneration confirmed by Pope John Paul II.

Canonization in Other Christian Contexts

In Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, canonization continues to be practiced much as it was during the first millennium of Christianity: people are recognized as saints primarily because they are seen to have preserved the image of God in themselves, and in that sense, are living icons. This recognition happens through the simple process of adding a person's name to the list or canon of saints who are honored throughout the year. Canonization does not make a person a saint; canonization simply recognizes that a person already is a saint. There is no single comprehensive list of all Orthodox saints, and no bureaucratic process to go through before adding a saint to the canon (section derived from an older version of the Wikipedia article). However, for a cult to develop past the local level, the propriety of venerating a particular figure is determined by a synod of bishops corresponding to the relevant geographical area. An interesting difference, likely stemming from the increased importance of saints in the Orthodox liturgy, is that "local saints may be venerated if the bishop does not object" (Beinert, 816), allowing the public greater autonomy in the formation of popular cults.

Though it may seem like the above article privileges the Roman Catholic experience, it is simply the case that their religious tradition developed a far more involved (even juristic) process for determining which figures are suitable subjects for veneration. This is not to deny the importance of saints or sainthood to any of these other traditions, though for more information on those topics, please consult the articles on saints, iconography, the Byzantine section of the article on idolatry, as well as the general articles on Eastern Rite Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Oriental Orthodox Christianity.

External links

• Entry on canonization and beatification in the Catholic Encyclopedia. Note: The article presented above incorporates text from this public-domain source.
• Canonization of Saints - Describes the significance and process of canonizing saints.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Beinert, Wolfgang. "Saints, Veneration of" in The Encyclopedia of Christianity (Vol. 4). Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005.
• Brown, Peter. The Cult of the Saints. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1981.
• "Canonization." The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
• Goodich, Michael. "The Politics of Canonization in the Thirteenth Century: Lay and Mendicant Saints." Church History. Vol. 44. 1975. 294-307.
• Kleinberg, Aviad M. "Proving Sanctity: Selection and Authentication of Saints in the Later Middle Ages." Viator. Vol. 20. 1989. 183-205.
• Theilmann, John M. "Political Canonization and Political Symbolism in Medieval England." Journal of British Studies. Vol. 29. July 1990. 241-266.
• Toynbee, Margaret R. S. Louis of Toulouse and the Process of Canonisation in the Fourteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1929
• Vauchez, André. Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages. Translated by Jean Birrell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
• Weinstein, David and Rudolph M. Bell. Saints and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
• Wilson, Stephen (ed.). Saints and their Cults. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

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