Difference between revisions of "Canaan" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:CanaanMap.jpg|right|240px|Map of Canaan]]
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[[File:Merneptah Israel Stele Cairo.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The [[Merneptah Stele]] commemorates Egyptian victories in Canaan around 1209 B.C.E.]]
  
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'''Canaan''' is an ancient term for a region approximating present-day [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]], plus adjoining coastal lands and parts of [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], and [[Jordan]].
  
'''Canaan''' ([[Canaanite languages| Canaanite]]: כנען, {{lang-he|כְּנַעַן}}  {{IPA|kə.na.ʕan}}, [[Koine Greek|Greek]]: Χαναάν whence [[Latin]]: ''Canaan''; and from Hebrew, [[Aramaic language| Aramaic]]: {{Unicode|ܟܢܥܢ}} whence {{lang-ar|کنعان}}) is an ancient term for a region approximating to present-day [[Israel]] and the [[West Bank and Gaza]], plus adjoining coastal lands and parts of [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]. The [[Hebrew Bible]] identifies Canaan with Lebanon — foremost with the coastal city of Sidon — but extends the "Land of Canaan" southward across [[Gaza]] to the "[[Brook of Egypt]]" and eastward to the [[Jordan Valley]], thus including modern [[Israel]] with the [[Palestinian Territories]]. This southern area included various ethnic groups. The [[Amarna Letters]] found in [[Ancient Egypt]] mention Canaan ([[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: ''{{unicode|Kinaḫḫu}}'') in connection with Gaza and other cities along the [[Phoenicia]]n coast and into Upper [[Galilee]].  Many earlier Egyptian sources also make mention of numerous campaigns conducted in ''Ka-na-na'', just inside Asia.
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Canaanites are mentioned extensively in the [[Bible]], as well as in [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]] texts. According to the Bible, the land of Canaan was the "promised land" which [[Yahweh|God]] gave to [[Abraham]] and his descendants. The Canaanites themselves, however, were considered to be the implacable enemies of the Israelites, who practiced a decadent and idolatrous religion. Contemporary archaeologists, however, see much continuity between the Canaanite population and the early Israelites, with whom they shared a common language and customs.  
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The term "Canaan land" is also used as a metaphor for any land of promise or spiritual state of liberation from oppression. [[Moses]]' journey from Egypt to the promised land of Canaan thus symbolizes a people's journey from oppression to freedom, from sin to grace.
  
Various Canaanite sites have been excavated by archaeologists, most notably the Canaanite town of [[Ugarit]] in modern Syria, which was rediscovered in 1928.  Much of the modern knowledge about the Canaanites stems from excavation in this area. Canaanites are mentioned in the [[Bible]], Mesopotamian and [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian texts]], and have always normally been considered an ethnic group radiating out of Lebanon; though some recent sources, without specifying any evidence, have asserted an origin on the [[Arabian Peninsula]]<ref>Bernard Lewis (2002), The Arabs in History, Oxford University Press, USA; 6 New Edition, p. 17.</ref><ref name = "History">[http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=201334]</ref>.
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==Historical overview==
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[[Human being|Human]] habitation of the land of Canaan goes far back with both [[Cro-magnon]] and [[Neanderthal]] skeletons having been unearthed from [[Paleolithic]] times. A settled agricultural community was present at [[Jericho]] from about 8000 B.C.E..E. By 3000 B.C.E., settlement in towns and villages was widespread.
  
==Etymology==
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The earliest written mention of the area later called Canaan comes in the eighteenth century B.C.E. in [[Mesopotamia]]n sources. The term Canaan and Canaanite first appear around the fifteenth century B.C.E. in [[cuneiform]], [[Phoenicia]]n, and [[Egypt]]ian, inscriptions.
The name ''Canaan'' is of obscure origins, with one possibility being the non-Semitic [[Hurrian]] "Knaa" or Akkadian ''Kinahhu'', meaning "blue cloth snales." The first known references appear in the second millennium B.C.E, possibly from Hurrian sources in the [[Mesopotamian]] city of [[Nuzi]].
 
  
''Canaanite'' refers to a group of closely related [[Semitic languages]]. [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] was once a southern dialect of the [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite language]], and [[Ugaritic language| Ugaritic]] a northern one. Canaanite is the first language to use a [[Semitic]] [[alphabet]], from which most other scripts derive.
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[[Semitic]] peoples are thought to have appeared in Canaan in the early [[Bronze Age]], prior to 2000 B.C.E. Writing began to appear shortly thereafter. The Semitic people known as the [[Amorites]] became the dominant population group during this period, migrating from the northeast. Also entering from the north were the Hurrians (Horites). Egyptians and the [[Hyksos]], (see below) entered the region from the south.  
  
The [[Bible]] attributes the name to a single person, Canaan, the son of [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]] and the grandson of [[Noah]], whose offspring correspond to the names of various ethnic groups in the land of Canaan,(Genesis 10). The Table associates Canaan foremost with the coastal city of Sidon in modern Lebanon. While acknowledging the hegemony of the Canaanites, they are considered one ethnic group among several in the area, including biblical "[[Hittites]]" from Hatti in the area known today as [[Turkey]].
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In the Late Bronze age (1550-1200 <small>B.C.E.</small>), [[Egypt]] controlled most of Canaan through a system of vassal city-states. [[Hittite]] and [[Apiru]] (possibly Hebrew) attackers sometimes captured Canaanite towns or harassed them from the countryside. Israelite civilization began to emerge in the historical record in the late thirteenth century <small>B.C.E.</small>, with a mention on the [[Merenptah stele]] among those nations conquered by the Egyptian monarch.
  
Nowadays, the English word ''Canaanite'' can describe anything pertaining to Canaan, especially its culture, languages, religions, and inhabitants. The language of ancient [[Amon]] and [[Moab]] in the area of modern Jordan can be called eastern dialects of [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]], although these ethnic groups are not Canaanite, properly speaking.
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Historians debate whether Israel's rise represented an invasion, gradual infiltration, a cultural transformation of native Canaanite population, or a combination of the above. With the establishment of the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]], the Canaanite, [[Philistine]], and [[Phoenician]] peoples co-existed with the Israelites (though not always peacefully), along with other populations such as the [[Amorites]], [[Edomites]], and [[Moabites]] to the east and south. From the tenth through the seventh centuries, these nations were strongly pressured and sometimes conquered by [[Syria]]n, [[Assyria]]n, Egyptian, and finally [[Babylonia]]n forces. The latter finally came to a position of complete dominance in the sixth century B.C.E..
  
==Canaan in Mesopotamian inscriptions==
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==Etymology and early references==
Historically, one of the first mentions of Canaan appears in a  document from the eighteenth century B.C.E. found in the ruins of [[Mari, Syria| Mari]], a former [[Sumer]]ian outpost in Syria. Apparently, Canaan at this time existed as a distinct political entity (probably a loose confederation of city-states).
 
  
Soon after this, the great law-giver [[Hammurabi]] (1728-1686 B.C.E.), first king of a united [[Babylonia]], extended Babylonian influence over Canaan and Syria. E. Schrader<ref name = "Schrader1888 299">SCHRADER, E.  Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, vol II (1888), pp. 299ff.</ref> associated Hammurabi with the [[Amraphel]] of ''Genesis'', but according to The Oxford Companion to the Bible, this view has been largely abandoned in recent years<ref name = "Oxford">The Oxford Companion to the Bible.</ref>.
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The ''Canaanite'' language refers to a group of closely related [[Semitic languages]]. [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] was once a southern dialect of the [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite language]], and [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]], a northern one. Canaanite is the first language to use a [[Semitic]] [[alphabet]], from which most other scripts derive.
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Historically, one of the first mentions of the area later known as Canaan appears in a document from the eighteenth century B.C.E. found in the ruins of Mari, a former [[Sumer]]ian outpost in [[Syria]]. Apparently, Canaan at this time existed as a distinct political entity (probably a loose confederation of [[city-state]]s). Soon after this, the great law-giver [[Hammurabi]] (1728-1686 B.C.E.), first king of a united [[Babylonia]], extended Babylonian influence over Canaan and Syria.
  
 
Tablets found in the [[Mesopotamia]]n city of [[Nuzi]] use the term ''Kinahnu'' ("Canaan") as a synonym for red or purple dye, apparently a renowned Canaanite export commodity. The purple cloth of [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] in [[Phoenicia]] was well known far and wide.
 
Tablets found in the [[Mesopotamia]]n city of [[Nuzi]] use the term ''Kinahnu'' ("Canaan") as a synonym for red or purple dye, apparently a renowned Canaanite export commodity. The purple cloth of [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] in [[Phoenicia]] was well known far and wide.
  
Archaeological excavations of a number of sites later identified as Canaanite, show that prosperity of the region reached its zenith during this Middle [[Bronze Age]] period. In the north the cities of [[Yamkhad]] and [[Qatna]] were hegemons of important [[Confederation|confederacies]] and it would appear that biblical [[Hazor]] was the chief city of another important coalition in the south.
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The [[Bible]] attributes the name to a single person, Canaan, the son of [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]] and the grandson of [[Noah]], whose offspring correspond to the names of various ethnic groups in the land of Canaan (Gen. 10).
  
 
==Egyptian Canaan==
 
==Egyptian Canaan==
[[Image:KAnana.gif|thumb|left|200px|The name ''Canaan'' occurs in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] as ''kAnana'' on the [[Merneptah Stele]] in the 13th century B.C.E.]]
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[[Image:KAnana.gif|thumb|left|200px|The name ''Canaan'' occurs in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] as ''kAnana'' on the [[Merneptah Stele]]]]
During the second millennium B.C.E., [[Ancient Egypt]]ian texts refer to ''Canaan'' as an Egyptian province, whose boundaries generally corroborate the definition of Canaan found in the [[Hebrew Bible]]: bounded to the west by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], to the north in the vicinity of [[Hamath]] in Syria, to the east by the [[Jordan Valley]], and to the south by a line extended from the [[Dead Sea]] to around [[Gaza]] ({{Niv|Numbers|34:1–12|Numbers 34}}).  
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During the second millennium B.C.E., [[ancient Egypt]]ian texts refer to Canaan as an Egyptian province, whose boundaries generally corroborate the definition of Canaan found in the [[Hebrew Bible]]: bounded to the west by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], to the north in the vicinity of [[Hamath]] in Syria, to the east by the [[Jordan Valley]], and to the south by a line extended from the [[Dead Sea]] to around [[Gaza]] ({{Niv|Numbers|34:1–12|Numbers 34}}).  
  
At the end of what is referred to as the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt| Middle Kingdom]] era of Egypt, was a breakdown in centralized power, the assertion of independence by various rulers and the assumption of power in the Delta by  the kings of the 17th Dynasty. Around [[1674 B.C.E.]], these  rulers, whom the Egyptians referred to as "rulers from foreign lands" (Egyptian, ''Heqa Khasut''), hence "[[Hyksos]]" (Greek), came to control northern Egypt, evidently leaving Canaan an ethnically diverse land.
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At the end of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] era of Egypt, a breakdown in centralized power allowed for the assertion of independence by various rulers. Around 1674 B.C.E., the Semitic people known as [[Hyksos]] came to control northern Egypt, evidently leaving Canaan an ethnically diverse land. Ahmose, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, ended a century of Hyksos rule and the Hyksos were pushed northward, some of them probably settling permanently in Canaan. The ancient [[Judaism|Jewish]] historian [[Flavius Josephus]] considered the Hyksos to be Hebrews, although scholarship today leans to the idea that they were only one of several proto-Israelite groups.
  
Among the migrant tribes who appear to have settled in the region were the [[Amorites]]. In the [[Old Testament]], we find ''Amorites'' mentioned in the list of peoples in Gen. 10:16-18. The Amorites seem to have played a significant role in the early history of Canaan. Some biblical sources describe them as located in the southern mountain country, (Gen. 14:7, Josh. 10:5, Deut. 1:19, 27, 44). Other verses speak of Amorite kings residing at Heshbon and Ashtaroth, east of the Jordan (Num. 21:13, Josh. 9:10, 24:8, 12, etc). Still other passages seem to regard ''Amorite'' virtually synonymous with "Canaanite" (Gen. 15:16, 48:22, Josh. 24:15, Judg. 1:34, etc) except that "Amorite" is not used for the population on the coast, of described as Philistines.  
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Among the other migrant tribes who appear to have settled in the region were the [[Amorites]]. Some biblical sources describe them as located in the southern mountain country (Gen. 14:7, Josh. 10:5, Deut. 1:19, 27, 44). Other verses speak of Amorite kings residing at Heshbon and Ashtaroth, east of the Jordan (Num. 21:13, Josh. 9:10, 24:8, 12, etc.). Still other passages seem to regard “Amorite” as virtually synonymous with "Canaanite" (Gen. 15:16, 48:22, Josh. 24:15, Judg. 1:34, etc.)&mdash;except that “Amorite” is not used for the population on the coast, of described as [[Philistines]].  
  
In Egyptian inscriptions, the terms ''Amar'' and ''Amurru'' are applied strictly to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to the [[Orontes River|Orontes]]. Later on, ''Amurru'' became the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] term for the interior of south as well as for northerly Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area seemed divided between two confederacies, one centred upon [[Megiddo]] in the [[Jezreel Valley]], the second on the more northerly city of [[Kadesh]] on the [[Orontes River]].
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Amorites apparently became the dominant ethnic group in the region. In Egyptian inscriptions, the terms ''Amar'' and ''Amurru'' are applied to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to the [[Orontes River|Orontes]]. Later on, ''Amurru'' became the [[Assyria|Assyrian]] term for both southern and northern Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area was apparently divided between two confederacies, one centered upon [[Megiddo]] in the [[Jezreel Valley]], the second on the more northerly city of [[Kadesh]] on the Orontes River.
  
In the centuries preceding the appearance of the Biblical Hebrews, Canaan and [[Syria]] became tributary to the Egypt, although domination was not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Under [[Thutmose III]] (1479–1426 B.C.E.) and [[Amenhotep II]] (1427–1400 B.C.E.), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal. The reign of [[Amenhotep III]], however, was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province. It is believed that turbulent chiefs began to seek their opportunities, although as a rule could not succed without the help of a neighboring king.
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In the centuries preceding the appearance of the Biblical Hebrews, Canaan again became tributary to Egypt, although domination was not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Under [[Thutmose III]] (1479–1426 B.C.E.) and [[Amenhotep II]] (1427–1400 B.C.E.), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Canaanites sufficiently loyal. The reign of [[Amenhotep III]], however, was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province. It is believed that turbulent chiefs began to seek other opportunities, although as a rule they could not succeed without the help of a neighboring king.
  
Egyptian power in Canaan suffered a setback when the [[Hittites]] (or Hatti) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III, and became even more threatening in that of his successor, displacing the Amurru and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. The Canaanite city-king Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, at first afraid of the Hittites, afterwards made a treaty with them. Joining with other external powers, they attacked the districts remaining loyal to Egypt.
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Egyptian power in Canaan suffered a setback when the [[Hittites]] (or Hatti) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III and became even more threatening than his successor, displacing the Amurru and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. The Canaanite city-king, Abd-Ashirta, and his son, Aziru&mdash;at first afraid of the Hittites&mdash;later made a treaty with them. Joining with other external powers, they attacked the districts remaining loyal to Egypt.
  
In the el [[Amarna letters]] (c. 1350 B.C.E.) sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlord [[Akhenaten]] (Amenhotep IV) in the 14th century B.C.E. — commonly known as the [[Amarna tablets|Tel-el-Amarna tablets]] — we find, beside ''Amar'' and ''Amurru'' (Amorites), the two forms ''Kinahhi'' and ''Kinahni'', corresponding to ''Kena''' and ''Kena'an'' respectively, and including Syria in its widest extent, as [[Eduard Meyer]] has shown. The letters are written in the official and diplomatic language [[Babylonia]]n/[[Akkadian]], though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are also in evidence.
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[[Image:Amarna-letter.png|thumb|216px|One of the Amarna letters]]
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In the el [[Amarna letters]] (c. 1350 B.C.E.) sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlord [[Akhenaten]] (Amenhotep IV) in the fourteenth century B.C.E. we find, beside ''Amar'' and ''Amurru'' (Amorites), the two forms ''Kinahhi'' and ''Kinahni'', corresponding to ''Kena''' and ''Kena'an'' respectively, and including Syria in its widest extent, as [[Eduard Meyer]] has shown. The letters are written in the official and diplomatic language [[Babylonia]]n/[[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]], though ""Canaanitish"" words and idioms are also in evidence.
  
In one such letter, Rib-Addi of Biblos sends a touching appeal for aid to his distant Egyptian ruler Amenhotep IV, who was apparently too engaged in his religious innovations to respond to such messages. Rib-addi also refers to attacks from the Apiru, possibly refering to Abdi-Ashirta's Hittite allies, but thought by some scholars to refer to bands of [[proto-Iraelites]] (Apiru is etymologically similar to "Hebrews") that had attacked him and other Canaanite kings during this period. The period corresponds to the biblical period prior to the [[Book of Judges|judges]].
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In one such letter, Rib-Addi of Biblos sends a touching appeal for aid to his distant Egyptian ruler [[Akhenaten|Amenhotep IV]], who was apparently too engaged in his religious innovations to respond to such messages. Rib-addi also refers to attacks from the [[Apiru]], thought by scholars to refer to bands of [[proto-Israelites]] that had attacked him and other Canaanite kings during this period ("Apiru," also transliterated "Habiru," is etymologically similar to "Hebrew"). The period corresponds to the biblical era just prior to the [[Book of Judges|judges]].
  
:Rib-addi says to his lord, the King of Lands, the Great King, the King of Battle: May the Lady of Gubla grant power to the king, my lord. At the feet of my lord, my Sun, I fall down seven times and seven times. Be informed that since Amanappa's arrival to me, all the 'Apiru have turned their face against me at the instigation of Abdi-Ashirta. Let my lord listen to the words of his servant, and let him send me a garrison to defend the city of the king, until the archers come out. And if there are no archers, then all the lands will unite with the 'Apiru. Listen, since the conquest of Bit-Arha in accordance with the demand of Abdi-Ashirta, they seek in the same way to unite Gubla and Batruna; and thus all lands would be united with the 'Apiru. Two cities remain with me, and they are also attempting to take them from the king's hand. Let my lord send a garrison to his two cities until the arrival of the archers, and give me something to feed them. I have nothing. Like a bird that lies in a net, a kilubi/cage, so I am in Gubla.
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<blockquote>Rib-addi says to his lord, the King of Lands, the Great King, the King of Battle... Let my lord listen to the words of his servant, and let him send me a garrison to defend the city of the king, until the archers come out. And if there are no archers, then all the lands will unite with the 'Apiru... Two cities remain with me, and they (the Apiru) are also attempting to take them from the king's hand. Let my lord send a garrison to his two cities until the arrival of the archers, and give me something to feed them. I have nothing. Like a bird that lies in a net, a kilubi/cage, so I am in Gubla.<ref>André Dollinger (ed.), [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/a-rib-addi.htm The Amarna Letters: Letters by Rib-Addi of Byblos.] Retrieved July 24, 2007.</ref></blockquote>
  
[[Seti I]] (ca. [[1290 BC]]) is said to have conquered the ''Shasu'', Arabian nomads living just south and east of the [[Dead Sea]], from the fortress of Taru (Shtir?) to "''Ka-n-'-na''", and [[Ramesses III]] (ca. [[1194 BC]]) is said to have built a temple to the god [[Amun|Amen]] in "''Ka-n-'-na''". This geographic name probably meant all of western [[Syria]] and Canaan, with Raphia, "the (first) city of the ''Ka-n-'-na''", on the southwest boundary toward the desert. Some [[archaeology| archaeologist]]s have proposed that Egyptian records of the [[13th century BC]] are early written reports of a [[monotheistic]] belief in ''[[Yahweh]]'' noted among the nomadic Shasu. Evidently, belief in Yahweh displaced polytheistic beliefs that had arisen among the early Hebrews, during and after the reign of King [[Josiah]] ([[650s B.C.E.|around 650 B.C.E.]])<ref name = "Dever">''Who Were the Early Israelites?'', [[William G. Dever]]. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003, pp. 128, 236.</ref><ref name = "Silberman">[[Neil A. Silberman]] and [[Israel Finkelstein]], ''The Bible Unearthed''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001.</ref>.
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[[Seti I]] (c. 1290 B.C.E.) is said to have conquered the ''Shasu'', Semitic-speaking [[nomad]]s living just south and east of the [[Dead Sea]], from the fortress of Taru in "''Ka-n-'-na''." Likewise, [[Ramses III]] (c. 1194 B.C.E.) is said to have built a temple to the god [[Amun|Amen]] in "''Ka-n-'-na''." This geographic name probably meant all of western [[Syria]] and Canaan. [[Archaeology|Archaeologist]]s have proposed that Egyptian records of the thirteenth century B.C.E. are early written reports of a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] belief in [[Yahweh]] noted among the nomadic Shasu.<ref name = "Dever">William G. Dever, ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?'' (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006, ISBN 0802844162), 128, 236.</ref><ref name = "Silberman">Neil Asher Silberman and Israel Finkelstein, ''The Bible Unearthed'' (New York: Free Press, 2001, ISBN 0684869136).</ref>
  
Most interesting is the mention of troublesome groups called sometimes ''SA-GAZ'' (a [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ideogram glossed as "brigand" in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]), and sometimes ''[[Habiru|Habiri]]'' (an Akkadian word). These Habiri are believed by some to signify generally all the nomadic tribes known as "Hebrews", and particularly the early Israelites, who sought to appropriate the fertile region for themselves. The term may also include other related peoples such as the [[Moabites]], [[Ammonites]] and [[Edomites]], or may not be an [[ethnonym]] at all; see the [[Habiru]] article for details.
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==Biblical Canaanites==
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[[Image:Levant 01.PNG|thumb|250px|Map of Ancient Israel]]
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In the biblical narrative, Canaan was the "promised land" given to [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], and their descendants by [[God]] after Abraham responded to God's call and migrated with his family from [[Haran]]. Although it was already inhabited by the "Canaanites," God instructed [[Moses]], [[Joshua]], and the Israelites to drive out its inhabitants and take the land as their own possession.
  
In the El [[Amarna letters]](~1350 B.C.E.), we meet with the Habiri in northern Syria. Itakkama wrote thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord to the SA-GAZ in the land of [[Kadesh]] and in [[Ubi]]. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAZ." Similarly Zimrida, king of [[Sidon]], declared, "All my cities which the king has given into my hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri." The king of [[Jerusalem]], [[Abdi-heba]], reported to the Pharaoh, "If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my lord." Abdi-heba's principle trouble arose from persons called [[Iilkili]] and the sons of [[Labaya]], who are said to have entered into a treasonable league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death at the siege of [[Gina]].  All these princes, however, maligned each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protested their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see above) accused of disloyalty, wrote thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, I and my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAZ, and my Suti ?9 are at the disposal of the (royal) troops to go whithersoever the king, my lord, commands"<ref name = "EA189">El Amarna letter, EA 189.</ref>.
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The part of the book of [[Genesis]] often called the [[Table of Nations]] describes the Canaanites as being descended from an ancestor himself called Canaan. It also lists several peoples about Canaan's descendants, saying:
  
==Biblical Canaanites==
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<blockquote>Canaan is the father of [[Sidon]], his firstborn; and of the [[Hittites]], [[Jebusites]], [[Amorites]], Girgashites, Hivites, Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, Zemarites, and Hamathites. Later the Canaanite clans scattered and the borders of Canaan reached from Sidon toward Gerar as far as [[Gaza]], and then toward [[Sodom]], Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha. ({{Niv|Genesis|10:15-19|Gen. 10:15–19}})</blockquote>
The part of the book of [[Genesis]] often called the [[Table of Nations]] describes the Canaanites as being descended from a personifying ancestor called Canaan. It also lists several peoples about Canaan's descendants, saying ({{Niv|Genesis|10:15-19|Genesis 10:15–19}}):
 
  
<blockquote>Canaan is the father of Sidon, his firstborn; and of the [[Hittites]], [[Jebusites]], [[Amorites]], [[Girgashites]], [[Hivites]], [[Arkites]], [[Sinites]], [[Arvadites]], [[Zemarites]], and [[Hamathites]]. Later the Canaanite clans reportedly scattered, and the borders of Canaan reachedfrom Sidon toward Gerar as far as Gaza, and then (inland around the Jordan Valley) toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha.</blockquote>
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A biblical story involving [[Noah]]'s grandson Canaan seems to represent an origin legend concerning the ancient discovery of the [[agriculture#history|cultivation]] of [[grapes]] around 4000 B.C.E. in the area of [[Ararat]], which is associated with Noah. The story also accounts for the supposed superiority of the Semitic people over the Canaanites, who were to be their servants.
  
Similarly, Canaanite populations are said to inhabit:
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After the [[Great Flood]], [[Noah]] planted a vineyard and made wine but became drunk. While intoxicated, an incident occurred involving Noah and his youngest son, [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]]. Afterward, Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan to a life of servitude to his brothers ({{Niv|Genesis|9:20-27|Gen. 9:20–27}}). While "Canaan" was the ancestor of the Canaanite tribes, "Shem" was the ancestor of the [[Israelites]], [[Moabites]], [[Edomites]], and [[Ammonites]], who dominated the inland areas around the [[Jordan Valley]].
*the [[Mediterranean]] coastlands ({{Niv|Joshua|5:1|Joshua 5:1}}), including [[Lebanon]] corresponding to [[Phoenicia]] ({{Niv|Isaiah|23:11|Isaiah 23:11}}) and the [[Gaza Strip]] corresponding to [[Philistia]] ({{Niv|Zephaniah|2:5|Zephania 2:5}}).
 
*the [[Jordan Valley]] ({{Niv|Joshua|11:3|Joshua 11:3}}, {{Niv|Numbers|13:29|Numbers 13:29}}, {{Niv|Genesis|13:12|Genesis 13:12}}).
 
  
As discussed above, the cities of Canaan were ruled by vassals of the [[Egyptian Empire]] in the pre-Israelite period of the late [[Brozne Age]]. The Table of Nations recognizes Egypt's regional influence when it calls Canaan himself the "son of Ham," whose ethnicities are associated with Africa ({{Niv|Genesis|10:6|Genesis 10:6}}).
+
The Bible describes God cautioning the Israelites against the [[idolatry]] of the Canaanites and their [[fertility cult]] ({{Niv|Leviticus|18:27|Lev. 18:27}}). The land of the Canaanites was thus deemed suitable for conquest by the Israelites partly on moral grounds. They were to be "driven out," their enslavement was allowed, and one passage states that they are not to be left alive in the cities conquered by the Israelites ({{Niv|Deuteronomy|20:10-18|Deut. 20:10–18}}):
  
A biblical story involving Canaan seems to refer to the ancient discovery of the [[agriculture#history|cultivation]] of [[grapes] around 4000 B.C.E. around the area of [[Ararat]], which is associated with [[Noah]].<ref>http://www.savoreachglass.com/articles.php/13</ref> After the Flood, [[Noah]] planted a vineyard, made wine but became drunk. While intoxicated, an [[Curse of Ham| incident]] occurred involving him and his youngest son, [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]]. Afterward, Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan to a life of servitude. He is to serve his brothers and also his uncles [[Shem]] and [[Japheth]] ({{Niv |Genesis|9:20-27|Genesis 9:20–27}}). Noah's curse is typically interpreted to apply to the descendents of the mentioned figures. "Shem" was the ancestor of the [[Israelites]], [[Moabites]], [[Eddomites]], and [[Ammonites]], who dominated the Canaanite inland areas around the Jordan Valley.
+
<blockquote>In the cities of the nations the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes. Completely destroy them&mdash;the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites&mdash;as the Lord your God has commanded you. (Deut. 20:16-17)</blockquote>
  
The Canaanites ({{lang-he|כנענים }}, [[Standard Hebrew]] ''Knaanim'', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] ''Kəna‘anîm'') are said to have been one of seven regional ethnic divisions or "nations" driven out before the [[Israelites]]. Specifically, the other nations include the [[Hittites in the Bible| Hittites]], the  [[Girgashites]], the [[Amorites]], the [[Perizzites]], the [[Hivites]], and the [[Jebusites]] ({{Niv|Deuteronomy|7:1|Deuteronomy 7:1}}).
+
Leviticus 18, on the other hand allows for non-Israelite populations to remain in the land, so long as they refrain from sexual immorality and [[human sacrifice]].
  
The Bible describes God cautioning the Israelites against the sexual idolatry of the Canaanites and their [[fertility cult]] ({{Niv|Leviticus|18:27| Leviticus 18:27}}). Thus the Land of the Canaanites, as defined by these seven groups was deemed suitable for conquest by the Israelites partly on moral grounds ({{Niv|Deuteronomy|20:16-17| Deuteronomy 20:16–17}}). One of the [[613 mitzvot]] prescribes that no inhabitants of the cities of six Canaanite nations, the same as mentioned in 7:1, minus the Girgashites, were to be left alive.
+
===Critical views===
{{Sons of Noah}}
+
Contemporary archaeologists believe that the Israelites themselves were, for the most part, originally Canaanites (including [[Amorites]], [[Apiru]], [[Shashu]], possibly [[Hyksos]], and others) who federated into the nations of Judah and Israel from the eleventh century B.C.E. onward, rather than being an ethnically homogeneous group that migrated ''en masse'' from Egypt, as the Bible reports.
  
===Critical view===
+
The story of the [[Kenites]] (Judges 1) joining Judah is an example of the Bible itself confirming the theory that non-Israelite people federated with [[Israel]] in [[Canaan]]. Moreover, the [[Perizzites]] are usually named as a Canaanite tribe against whom Israel must fight (Gen. 3:8 and 15:19, etc.), but Numbers 26:20 identifies them as part of the lineage and [[tribe of Judah]], through his son Perez.<ref>This view, however, is based on the assumption of recent commentators that the names "Perizi" and "Perazi" are identical.</ref>. The latter reference may reflect the fact that Perizzites joined Judah in Canaan and were literally "adopted" into Judah's origin-story. Meanwhile, the biblical story of the conquest of Canaan may represent the memories of [[Apiru]] victories written down several centuries after the fact and filtered through the religious viewpoint of that later time.<ref name = "Silberman" />
Bible critics often take the view that biblical attitude toward the people of Canaan is the product of a seventh century B.C.E. outlook promulgated by priests centered in the [[Jerusalem Temple]], especially during the reign of King [[Josiah]]. It thus represents the [[ideology]] and program of a later era, rathrer than an truly divine policy of [[genocide]] revealed to Moses.
 
  
In additional many archaeologists believe that the Israelites themselves were, for the most part, Canaanites who federated into nations of Judah and Israel from the eleventh century B.C.E. onward, rather than descending en masse to conquer Canaan under Joshua as the Bible reports. Stories of the biblical conquest of Canaan may, in fact, represent the memories of occasional Apiru victories written down several centuries after the fact and taylored to fit the political agenda of Josiah's time: namely, to allow the worship of [[Yahweh]] only and cleanse the nation of Canaanite cultural influences.
+
According to this and similar theories "Israelite" migration from the south indeed took place, but occurred in phases as various groups moved north into Canaan. Moreover, some of the groups that later identified with the Israelites had lived in Canaan for centuries. Thus the distinction between Canaanites and Israelites was once very faint, if it existed at all. Possibly the earliest distinction was political: the Canaanites were ruled by the Egyptian-dominated [[city-state]]s while the proto-Israelites were Canaanite groups who lived in the countryside outside of that political orbit—hence, [[Apiru]]. Eventually the Israelites came to see themselves as a people separate from the Canaanites, largely for religious reasons.
  
According to this and similar theories, only a small portion of the people later called Israelites actually migrated to Egypt. Groups such as the Hyksos, Apiru, and Shasu may indeed have come north into Canaan at some point. The Shasu in particular are believed to have been worshipers of Yahweh, while the Apiru appear to have been nomadic hersdmen living outside of large settlements and sometimes attacking or conquering them. The Hyksos once lived as the dominant group in Egypt but were driven out during the reign of ----------. These three groups could have contributed to the Israelite religion, legends of conquest, and the story of the Exodus, respectively.
+
The Israelite religion itself went through an evolutionary process, beginning with the fusion of the Canaanite god [[El]] with the desert god [[Yahweh]], and evolving into the assertion that Yahweh/El alone could be worshiped by the Israelites. The rejection of traditional Canaanite religion resulted in the development of a religious mythology in which the Israelites were never a part of Canaanite culture, and the Canaanite gods were enemies of Yahweh/El, rather than members of the assembly of the gods with El as their chief.
  
 
==Canaanite Religion==
 
==Canaanite Religion==
The religion of the Canaanites was inherited primarily from the great earlier civilizations of Mesopotamia. The chief deity was [[El]], who reigned over the [[assembly of the gods]]. Although technically the supreme diety, El was not always the most important god in terms of worship and devotion. One of his sons, [[Baal]]/Hadad was also an important deity, the god of rain, storm, and fertility. The Israelite god [[Yahweh]] can also be considered a Canaanite diety who in early [[psalms]] shares many characteristics with El and Baal. El's consort [[Ashera]] was a mother goddess, also associated with fertility, particularly of the human kind. Another female deity was [[Astarte]], who can be viewed as the Canaanite version of the Mesopotamian goddess [[Ishtar]]. [[Anat]], meanwhile, was the goddess of war similar to the later Greek [[Diana]]. A number of other names are assigned to gods with similar characterstics to those of El, Baal, oh Yahweh, for example [[Dagon]], [[Chemosh]], and [[Moloch]].
+
[[Image:Baal Ugarit Louvre AO17330.jpg|thumb|200px|The Canaanite god [[Baal]]]]
 +
The religion of the Canaanites was inherited primarily from the great earlier [[civilization]]s of [[Mesopotamia]]. Lacking the rich supply of water for [[irrigation]] from such mighty rivers as the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], however, Canaanite religion was especially concerned with rain as a key element in the fertility and life of the land.
  
The biblical patriarchs as well as the later Israelites shared with the Canaanite neighbors a recognition of [[El]] as the "God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.[[Yahweh]] is affirmed in the Bible to be identical with El. The prophetic and priestly tradition, however, declared that no other dieties than Yahweh/El should be worshiped by the Israelites. In this view, other gods existed, but they were specific to other peoples and the Israelites should have nothing to do with them. Later prophets went so far as to declare that Yahweh alone was God. Archeolgists, however, indicate that goddess worship and Baal-worship persisted among the common folk as well as the kings of Israel and Judah until at least the time of the exile.
+
The chief deity was [[El]], who reigned over the [[assembly of the gods]]. Although technically the supreme god, El was not the most important deity in terms of worship and devotion. One of his sons, [[Baal]]/Hadad was an especially important deity, the god of rain, storms, and fertility. The Israelite god [[Yahweh]] could also be considered originally a [[Sashu]]/Canaanite deity, who in early [[psalms]] shares many characteristics with El and Baal. El's consort [[Ashera]] was a mother [[goddess]], also associated with fertility. Another female deity, sometimes synonymous with Ashera, was [[Astarte]] or Ashtoreth, who can be viewed as the Canaanite version of the Mesopotamian goddess [[Ishtar]]. Baal's sister [[Anat]], meanwhile, was the virginal goddess of war similar to the later [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[Diana]].
  
Biblical tradition makes much of such practices as sexual fertility rites and human sacrifice among the Canaanite tribes. It is generally agreed that the worship of Baal and Ashera sometimes involved such rites, although it is difficult to know how widespread this may have been. Human sacrifice was also practiced by both the Canaanites and the Israelites. The biblical judge [[Jephthah]], for example, offered his daughter as a burnt offering to Yahweh after the God of Israel blessed him with a military victory. The prophets would later condemn such practices and associate thim with "foregin gods" only.
+
El and Baal were sometimes associated with bull-worship, and cattle and other offerings were often sacrificed to them, as well as to Yahweh. Ancient stone pillars and horned altars have been also found in numerous sites throughout Canaan, as well as the remains of temples, statues, and other artifacts dedicated to these deities. Bread offerings were made to Ashera or Astarte as the "Queen of Heaven," and statuettes of the goddess of fertility have been found not only in Canaanite temples but also in many domestic buildings. A number of other names are assigned to gods with similar characteristics to those of El, Baal, or Yahweh, for example [[Dagon]], [[Chemosh]], and [[Moloch]].
  
==Phoenician Canaanites==
+
The biblical patriarchs and later Israelites are described in the Bible as sharing with their Canaanite neighbors the recognition of [[El]] as the supreme deity. [[Yahweh]] is affirmed in the Bible to be identical with El. However, the early prophetic and priestly tradition declared that no other deities than Yahweh/El should be worshiped by the Israelites. In this view, other gods existed, but they were specific to other peoples, and the Israelites should have nothing to do with them. Later prophets went so far as to declare that Yahweh alone was God. Archaeologists, however, indicate that goddess worship and Baal-worship persisted among the common folk as well as the kings of Israel and Judah until at least the time of the exile.<ref>William G. Dever, ''Did God Have A Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion In Ancient Israel'' (Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005, ISBN 0802828523).</ref>
Early on the Canaanites acquired fame as traders across a wide area beyond the [[Near East]]. There are occasional instances in the Hebrew Bible where "Canaanite" is used as a synonym for "[[merchant]]" — presumably indicating the aspect of Canaanite culture that the authors found most familiar. The term was derived from the place name, because so many merchants described themselves as Canaanites.  
 
  
One of Canaan's most famous exports was a much sought-after purple dye, derived from two species of [[Trunculus Murex |sea snails]] found along the east [[Mediterranean]] coast and worn proudly by figures from ancient kings to modern popes.
+
Biblical tradition makes much of such practices as sexual fertility rites and human sacrifice among the Canaanite tribes. It is generally agreed that the worship of Baal and Ashera sometimes involved such rites, although it is difficult to know how frequent or widespread this may have been. [[Human sacrifice]] was also practiced by both the Canaanites and the Israelites. The Hebrew [[prophet]]s, however, sharply condemned such practices.
 
 
Between ca. [[1200 B.C.E. | 1200]]–[[1100 B.C.E.]], most of southern Canaan was conquered by [[Ancient Israel| Israelites]], while the northern areas were taken over by [[Arameans]]. The remaining area still under clear Canaanite control, is referred to by its Greek name, "[[Phoenicia]]" (meaning "purple", in reference to the land's famous dye).
 
 
 
Much later, in the [[6th century B.C.E.]], [[Hecataeus]] affirms that Phoenicia was formerly called '''χνα''', a name that [[Philo of Byblos]] subsequently adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called [[Phoenicians|Phoinix]]".  Quoting fragments attributed to [[Sanchuniathon]], he relates that [[Byblos]], [[Berytus]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] were among the first cities ever built, under the rule of the mythical [[Cronus]], and credits the inhabitants with developing fishing, hunting, agriculture, shipbuiding and writing.
 
 
 
[[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] also mentions that one of the terms the seafaring Phoenicians called their homeland was "Canaan." This is further confirmed by coins of the city of [[Latakia| Laodicea]] by the [[Lebanon]], that bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan"; these coins are dated to the reign of [[Antiochus IV of Syria|Antiochus IV]] ([[175 B.C.E. | 175]]–[[164 B.C.E.]]) and his successors.
 
 
 
The first of many Canaanites who emigrated seaward finally settled in [[Carthage]], and St. Augustine adds that the country people near [[Hippo Regius|Hippo]], presumably [[Punic]] in origin, still called themselves ''Chanani'' in his day.
 
 
 
===Genetics===
 
{{Merge|Phoenicians|date=November 2006}}
 
<—! The Phoenicians are the Canaanites proper.{{fact}} —>  Genetic research using Y-chromosome haploid analysis has identified a Phoenician genetic marker (a so-to-speak "Canaanite gene") among modern Lebanese populations, including among Maronite Christians and Shiite Muslims, especially near the coast.<ref name = "Phœnicia">[http://www.phoenicia.org/genetics.html#Macedonians  Genetics] of Phœnicians.</ref> Initial findings evidence the modern Lebanese gene pools comprise indigenous Canaanites, followed by immigration waves from [[Arabs|Arabs]], [[Crusade|Crusader Europeans]], and [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk Turks]]. The [[American University of Beirut]] launched the Phoenician genographic project to precisely map the genetic makeup of the Lebanese population and even the Mediterranean populations where ancient Canaanites colonized. A high-frequency of the Canaanite gene has even been detected in [[Malta]], an island that Phoenicians colonized.
 
  
 
==The Promised Land==
 
==The Promised Land==
As the land promised by God to the Israelites, "Canaan" has come to mean any place of hope. For the Jews, it was the land of promise where they would eventually return after being scattered every since the destruction of the Temple. That hope was fulfilled for many Jews with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.
+
As the land promised by God to the Israelites, "Canaan" has come to mean any place of hope. For the [[Jew]]s, it was the land of promise where they would eventually return after being scattered every since the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Temple]]. That hope was fulfilled for many Jews with the establishment of the State of [[Israel]] in 1948.
  
For Christians, "Canaan" often takes a more spiritual meaning, having to do with the afterlife, or sometimes with the realm to be established at Christ's Second Coming. In the words of the American spiritual song "Where the Soul of Man Never Dies":
+
For [[Christianity|Christians]], "Canaan" often takes a more spiritual meaning, having to do with the afterlife, or sometimes with the realm to be established at Christ's Second Coming. In the words of the American spiritual song "Where the Soul of Man Never Dies":
  
 
:To Canaan's land I'm on my way
 
:To Canaan's land I'm on my way
 
:Where the soul of man never dies
 
:Where the soul of man never dies
 
:My darkest night will turn to day
 
:My darkest night will turn to day
:Where the soul (of man) never dies
+
:Where the soul (of man) never dies.
 +
 
 +
==Notes==
 +
<references />
  
==Further reading==
+
==References==
*[[Jonathan N. Tubb]], ''Canaanites'', Norman (Oklahoma) 1998. ISBN 0-8061-3108-X
+
*Abright, William F. ''The Archaeology of Palestine'', 2nd ed. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith Publisher Inc., 1985. ISBN 0844600032
 +
*Bright, John. ''A History of Israel'', 4th ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000. ISBN 0664220681
 +
*Coogan, Michael (ed.). ''Stories from Ancient Canaan''. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0664241841
 +
*Dever, William G. ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?'' Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2006. ISBN 0802844162
 +
*Dever, William G. ''Did God Have A Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion In Ancient Israel''. Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0802828523
 +
*Miller, J. Maxwell. ''A History of Ancient Israel and Judah''. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1986. ISBN 066421262X
 +
*Redford, Donald. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times''. Reprint edition, 1993. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0691000862
 +
*Silberman, Neil Asher and Israel Finkelstein. ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts''. NMew York: Free Press, 2002. ISBN 0684869136
 +
*Tubb, Jonathan N. ''Canaanites''. University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. ISBN 080613108X
  
 
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Latest revision as of 20:21, 16 December 2019

The Merneptah Stele commemorates Egyptian victories in Canaan around 1209 B.C.E.

Canaan is an ancient term for a region approximating present-day Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, plus adjoining coastal lands and parts of Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan.

Canaanites are mentioned extensively in the Bible, as well as in Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian texts. According to the Bible, the land of Canaan was the "promised land" which God gave to Abraham and his descendants. The Canaanites themselves, however, were considered to be the implacable enemies of the Israelites, who practiced a decadent and idolatrous religion. Contemporary archaeologists, however, see much continuity between the Canaanite population and the early Israelites, with whom they shared a common language and customs.

The term "Canaan land" is also used as a metaphor for any land of promise or spiritual state of liberation from oppression. Moses' journey from Egypt to the promised land of Canaan thus symbolizes a people's journey from oppression to freedom, from sin to grace.

Historical overview

Human habitation of the land of Canaan goes far back with both Cro-magnon and Neanderthal skeletons having been unearthed from Paleolithic times. A settled agricultural community was present at Jericho from about 8000 B.C.E. By 3000 B.C.E., settlement in towns and villages was widespread.

The earliest written mention of the area later called Canaan comes in the eighteenth century B.C.E. in Mesopotamian sources. The term Canaan and Canaanite first appear around the fifteenth century B.C.E. in cuneiform, Phoenician, and Egyptian, inscriptions.

Semitic peoples are thought to have appeared in Canaan in the early Bronze Age, prior to 2000 B.C.E. Writing began to appear shortly thereafter. The Semitic people known as the Amorites became the dominant population group during this period, migrating from the northeast. Also entering from the north were the Hurrians (Horites). Egyptians and the Hyksos, (see below) entered the region from the south.

In the Late Bronze age (1550-1200 B.C.E.), Egypt controlled most of Canaan through a system of vassal city-states. Hittite and Apiru (possibly Hebrew) attackers sometimes captured Canaanite towns or harassed them from the countryside. Israelite civilization began to emerge in the historical record in the late thirteenth century B.C.E., with a mention on the Merenptah stele among those nations conquered by the Egyptian monarch.

Historians debate whether Israel's rise represented an invasion, gradual infiltration, a cultural transformation of native Canaanite population, or a combination of the above. With the establishment of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, the Canaanite, Philistine, and Phoenician peoples co-existed with the Israelites (though not always peacefully), along with other populations such as the Amorites, Edomites, and Moabites to the east and south. From the tenth through the seventh centuries, these nations were strongly pressured and sometimes conquered by Syrian, Assyrian, Egyptian, and finally Babylonian forces. The latter finally came to a position of complete dominance in the sixth century B.C.E.

Etymology and early references

The Canaanite language refers to a group of closely related Semitic languages. Hebrew was once a southern dialect of the Canaanite language, and Ugaritic, a northern one. Canaanite is the first language to use a Semitic alphabet, from which most other scripts derive.

Historically, one of the first mentions of the area later known as Canaan appears in a document from the eighteenth century B.C.E. found in the ruins of Mari, a former Sumerian outpost in Syria. Apparently, Canaan at this time existed as a distinct political entity (probably a loose confederation of city-states). Soon after this, the great law-giver Hammurabi (1728-1686 B.C.E.), first king of a united Babylonia, extended Babylonian influence over Canaan and Syria.

Tablets found in the Mesopotamian city of Nuzi use the term Kinahnu ("Canaan") as a synonym for red or purple dye, apparently a renowned Canaanite export commodity. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far and wide.

The Bible attributes the name to a single person, Canaan, the son of Ham and the grandson of Noah, whose offspring correspond to the names of various ethnic groups in the land of Canaan (Gen. 10).

Egyptian Canaan

The name Canaan occurs in hieroglyphs as kAnana on the Merneptah Stele

During the second millennium B.C.E., ancient Egyptian texts refer to Canaan as an Egyptian province, whose boundaries generally corroborate the definition of Canaan found in the Hebrew Bible: bounded to the west by the Mediterranean Sea, to the north in the vicinity of Hamath in Syria, to the east by the Jordan Valley, and to the south by a line extended from the Dead Sea to around Gaza (Numbers 34).

At the end of the Middle Kingdom era of Egypt, a breakdown in centralized power allowed for the assertion of independence by various rulers. Around 1674 B.C.E., the Semitic people known as Hyksos came to control northern Egypt, evidently leaving Canaan an ethnically diverse land. Ahmose, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, ended a century of Hyksos rule and the Hyksos were pushed northward, some of them probably settling permanently in Canaan. The ancient Jewish historian Flavius Josephus considered the Hyksos to be Hebrews, although scholarship today leans to the idea that they were only one of several proto-Israelite groups.

Among the other migrant tribes who appear to have settled in the region were the Amorites. Some biblical sources describe them as located in the southern mountain country (Gen. 14:7, Josh. 10:5, Deut. 1:19, 27, 44). Other verses speak of Amorite kings residing at Heshbon and Ashtaroth, east of the Jordan (Num. 21:13, Josh. 9:10, 24:8, 12, etc.). Still other passages seem to regard “Amorite” as virtually synonymous with "Canaanite" (Gen. 15:16, 48:22, Josh. 24:15, Judg. 1:34, etc.)—except that “Amorite” is not used for the population on the coast, of described as Philistines.

Amorites apparently became the dominant ethnic group in the region. In Egyptian inscriptions, the terms Amar and Amurru are applied to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later on, Amurru became the Assyrian term for both southern and northern Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area was apparently divided between two confederacies, one centered upon Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley, the second on the more northerly city of Kadesh on the Orontes River.

In the centuries preceding the appearance of the Biblical Hebrews, Canaan again became tributary to Egypt, although domination was not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Under Thutmose III (1479–1426 B.C.E.) and Amenhotep II (1427–1400 B.C.E.), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Canaanites sufficiently loyal. The reign of Amenhotep III, however, was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province. It is believed that turbulent chiefs began to seek other opportunities, although as a rule they could not succeed without the help of a neighboring king.

Egyptian power in Canaan suffered a setback when the Hittites (or Hatti) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III and became even more threatening than his successor, displacing the Amurru and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. The Canaanite city-king, Abd-Ashirta, and his son, Aziru—at first afraid of the Hittites—later made a treaty with them. Joining with other external powers, they attacked the districts remaining loyal to Egypt.

One of the Amarna letters

In the el Amarna letters (c. 1350 B.C.E.) sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlord Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) in the fourteenth century B.C.E. we find, beside Amar and Amurru (Amorites), the two forms Kinahhi and Kinahni, corresponding to Kena' and Kena'an respectively, and including Syria in its widest extent, as Eduard Meyer has shown. The letters are written in the official and diplomatic language Babylonian/Akkadian, though ""Canaanitish"" words and idioms are also in evidence.

In one such letter, Rib-Addi of Biblos sends a touching appeal for aid to his distant Egyptian ruler Amenhotep IV, who was apparently too engaged in his religious innovations to respond to such messages. Rib-addi also refers to attacks from the Apiru, thought by scholars to refer to bands of proto-Israelites that had attacked him and other Canaanite kings during this period ("Apiru," also transliterated "Habiru," is etymologically similar to "Hebrew"). The period corresponds to the biblical era just prior to the judges.

Rib-addi says to his lord, the King of Lands, the Great King, the King of Battle... Let my lord listen to the words of his servant, and let him send me a garrison to defend the city of the king, until the archers come out. And if there are no archers, then all the lands will unite with the 'Apiru... Two cities remain with me, and they (the Apiru) are also attempting to take them from the king's hand. Let my lord send a garrison to his two cities until the arrival of the archers, and give me something to feed them. I have nothing. Like a bird that lies in a net, a kilubi/cage, so I am in Gubla.[1]

Seti I (c. 1290 B.C.E.) is said to have conquered the Shasu, Semitic-speaking nomads living just south and east of the Dead Sea, from the fortress of Taru in "Ka-n-'-na." Likewise, Ramses III (c. 1194 B.C.E.) is said to have built a temple to the god Amen in "Ka-n-'-na." This geographic name probably meant all of western Syria and Canaan. Archaeologists have proposed that Egyptian records of the thirteenth century B.C.E. are early written reports of a monotheistic belief in Yahweh noted among the nomadic Shasu.[2][3]

Biblical Canaanites

Map of Ancient Israel

In the biblical narrative, Canaan was the "promised land" given to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their descendants by God after Abraham responded to God's call and migrated with his family from Haran. Although it was already inhabited by the "Canaanites," God instructed Moses, Joshua, and the Israelites to drive out its inhabitants and take the land as their own possession.

The part of the book of Genesis often called the Table of Nations describes the Canaanites as being descended from an ancestor himself called Canaan. It also lists several peoples about Canaan's descendants, saying:

Canaan is the father of Sidon, his firstborn; and of the Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, Girgashites, Hivites, Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, Zemarites, and Hamathites. Later the Canaanite clans scattered and the borders of Canaan reached from Sidon toward Gerar as far as Gaza, and then toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha. (Gen. 10:15–19)

A biblical story involving Noah's grandson Canaan seems to represent an origin legend concerning the ancient discovery of the cultivation of grapes around 4000 B.C.E. in the area of Ararat, which is associated with Noah. The story also accounts for the supposed superiority of the Semitic people over the Canaanites, who were to be their servants.

After the Great Flood, Noah planted a vineyard and made wine but became drunk. While intoxicated, an incident occurred involving Noah and his youngest son, Ham. Afterward, Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan to a life of servitude to his brothers (Gen. 9:20–27). While "Canaan" was the ancestor of the Canaanite tribes, "Shem" was the ancestor of the Israelites, Moabites, Edomites, and Ammonites, who dominated the inland areas around the Jordan Valley.

The Bible describes God cautioning the Israelites against the idolatry of the Canaanites and their fertility cult (Lev. 18:27). The land of the Canaanites was thus deemed suitable for conquest by the Israelites partly on moral grounds. They were to be "driven out," their enslavement was allowed, and one passage states that they are not to be left alive in the cities conquered by the Israelites (Deut. 20:10–18):

In the cities of the nations the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes. Completely destroy them—the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—as the Lord your God has commanded you. (Deut. 20:16-17)

Leviticus 18, on the other hand allows for non-Israelite populations to remain in the land, so long as they refrain from sexual immorality and human sacrifice.

Critical views

Contemporary archaeologists believe that the Israelites themselves were, for the most part, originally Canaanites (including Amorites, Apiru, Shashu, possibly Hyksos, and others) who federated into the nations of Judah and Israel from the eleventh century B.C.E. onward, rather than being an ethnically homogeneous group that migrated en masse from Egypt, as the Bible reports.

The story of the Kenites (Judges 1) joining Judah is an example of the Bible itself confirming the theory that non-Israelite people federated with Israel in Canaan. Moreover, the Perizzites are usually named as a Canaanite tribe against whom Israel must fight (Gen. 3:8 and 15:19, etc.), but Numbers 26:20 identifies them as part of the lineage and tribe of Judah, through his son Perez.[4]. The latter reference may reflect the fact that Perizzites joined Judah in Canaan and were literally "adopted" into Judah's origin-story. Meanwhile, the biblical story of the conquest of Canaan may represent the memories of Apiru victories written down several centuries after the fact and filtered through the religious viewpoint of that later time.[3]

According to this and similar theories "Israelite" migration from the south indeed took place, but occurred in phases as various groups moved north into Canaan. Moreover, some of the groups that later identified with the Israelites had lived in Canaan for centuries. Thus the distinction between Canaanites and Israelites was once very faint, if it existed at all. Possibly the earliest distinction was political: the Canaanites were ruled by the Egyptian-dominated city-states while the proto-Israelites were Canaanite groups who lived in the countryside outside of that political orbit—hence, Apiru. Eventually the Israelites came to see themselves as a people separate from the Canaanites, largely for religious reasons.

The Israelite religion itself went through an evolutionary process, beginning with the fusion of the Canaanite god El with the desert god Yahweh, and evolving into the assertion that Yahweh/El alone could be worshiped by the Israelites. The rejection of traditional Canaanite religion resulted in the development of a religious mythology in which the Israelites were never a part of Canaanite culture, and the Canaanite gods were enemies of Yahweh/El, rather than members of the assembly of the gods with El as their chief.

Canaanite Religion

The Canaanite god Baal

The religion of the Canaanites was inherited primarily from the great earlier civilizations of Mesopotamia. Lacking the rich supply of water for irrigation from such mighty rivers as the Tigris and Euphrates, however, Canaanite religion was especially concerned with rain as a key element in the fertility and life of the land.

The chief deity was El, who reigned over the assembly of the gods. Although technically the supreme god, El was not the most important deity in terms of worship and devotion. One of his sons, Baal/Hadad was an especially important deity, the god of rain, storms, and fertility. The Israelite god Yahweh could also be considered originally a Sashu/Canaanite deity, who in early psalms shares many characteristics with El and Baal. El's consort Ashera was a mother goddess, also associated with fertility. Another female deity, sometimes synonymous with Ashera, was Astarte or Ashtoreth, who can be viewed as the Canaanite version of the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar. Baal's sister Anat, meanwhile, was the virginal goddess of war similar to the later Greek Diana.

El and Baal were sometimes associated with bull-worship, and cattle and other offerings were often sacrificed to them, as well as to Yahweh. Ancient stone pillars and horned altars have been also found in numerous sites throughout Canaan, as well as the remains of temples, statues, and other artifacts dedicated to these deities. Bread offerings were made to Ashera or Astarte as the "Queen of Heaven," and statuettes of the goddess of fertility have been found not only in Canaanite temples but also in many domestic buildings. A number of other names are assigned to gods with similar characteristics to those of El, Baal, or Yahweh, for example Dagon, Chemosh, and Moloch.

The biblical patriarchs and later Israelites are described in the Bible as sharing with their Canaanite neighbors the recognition of El as the supreme deity. Yahweh is affirmed in the Bible to be identical with El. However, the early prophetic and priestly tradition declared that no other deities than Yahweh/El should be worshiped by the Israelites. In this view, other gods existed, but they were specific to other peoples, and the Israelites should have nothing to do with them. Later prophets went so far as to declare that Yahweh alone was God. Archaeologists, however, indicate that goddess worship and Baal-worship persisted among the common folk as well as the kings of Israel and Judah until at least the time of the exile.[5]

Biblical tradition makes much of such practices as sexual fertility rites and human sacrifice among the Canaanite tribes. It is generally agreed that the worship of Baal and Ashera sometimes involved such rites, although it is difficult to know how frequent or widespread this may have been. Human sacrifice was also practiced by both the Canaanites and the Israelites. The Hebrew prophets, however, sharply condemned such practices.

The Promised Land

As the land promised by God to the Israelites, "Canaan" has come to mean any place of hope. For the Jews, it was the land of promise where they would eventually return after being scattered every since the destruction of the Temple. That hope was fulfilled for many Jews with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.

For Christians, "Canaan" often takes a more spiritual meaning, having to do with the afterlife, or sometimes with the realm to be established at Christ's Second Coming. In the words of the American spiritual song "Where the Soul of Man Never Dies":

To Canaan's land I'm on my way
Where the soul of man never dies
My darkest night will turn to day
Where the soul (of man) never dies.

Notes

  1. André Dollinger (ed.), The Amarna Letters: Letters by Rib-Addi of Byblos. Retrieved July 24, 2007.
  2. William G. Dever, Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006, ISBN 0802844162), 128, 236.
  3. 3.0 3.1 Neil Asher Silberman and Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed (New York: Free Press, 2001, ISBN 0684869136).
  4. This view, however, is based on the assumption of recent commentators that the names "Perizi" and "Perazi" are identical.
  5. William G. Dever, Did God Have A Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion In Ancient Israel (Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005, ISBN 0802828523).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Abright, William F. The Archaeology of Palestine, 2nd ed. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith Publisher Inc., 1985. ISBN 0844600032
  • Bright, John. A History of Israel, 4th ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000. ISBN 0664220681
  • Coogan, Michael (ed.). Stories from Ancient Canaan. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0664241841
  • Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2006. ISBN 0802844162
  • Dever, William G. Did God Have A Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion In Ancient Israel. Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0802828523
  • Miller, J. Maxwell. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1986. ISBN 066421262X
  • Redford, Donald. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Reprint edition, 1993. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0691000862
  • Silberman, Neil Asher and Israel Finkelstein. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. NMew York: Free Press, 2002. ISBN 0684869136
  • Tubb, Jonathan N. Canaanites. University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. ISBN 080613108X

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