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===Chronology===
 
===Chronology===
Many scholars date Siddhartha's birth between 563 and 563 and his birth 80 years later (Buddhist accounts record that he was 80 when he died). This chronology is debated and there are some scholars who date his birth about a century later <ref>see for example,  Lance S. COUSINS, "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A review article" ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Series 3, 6.1 (1996), pp. 57-63.</ref>
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The time of his [[birth]] and [[death]] are uncertain. Buddhist accounts record that he was 80 years old when he died. Many scholars date Siddhartha's lifetime from 563 B.C.E. to 483 B.C.E., though some have suggested dates about a century later than this. This chronology is debated and there are some scholars who date his birth about a century later.<ref> Lance S. Cousins, [http://indology.info/papers/cousins "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article"], ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Series 3, 6.1 (1996), pp. 57-63.</ref>
  
 
===Biography===
 
===Biography===

Revision as of 13:33, 6 January 2007


A stone image of the Buddha.

While Buddhists believe that there have been other Buddhas (28 are referred to in the Pali canon), the term 'The Buddha' most commonly refers to Siddhartha Gautama (563B.C.E.-483B.C.E.), who is the Buddha for this age. He is often referred to as the 'historical Buddha'. He was the historical founder of Buddhism and the source of everthing that is known about the concept of 'Buddha-hood'. Those who follow the dharma [1], or teaching in this age can be considered as disciples of Sidhartha. When Buddhists take the three refuges, they take 'refuge' in the Buddha of this age, who is Siddhartha. A new Buddha will arise for the next age, whom many Buddhist believe will be called Maitreya Buddha. His coming will be necessary because as this age nears its end, their will be a decline in fidelity to the dharma. During his own life, Siddhartha was known as the 'awakened', so it is appropriate to refer to him by this title, which was not awarded posthumously but, for Siddhartha, described his own status - he was not a king, he was not a God, he was simply 'awake' and not asleep!

Thus, although in Buddhism, a Buddha (Sanskrit, Pāli) is technically any being who has become fully awakened or Bodhi (enlightened), who has permanently overcome anger, greed, and ignorance, and has achieved complete liberation from suffering, better known as Nirvana Siddhartha Gautama is the Buddha from a purely historical perspective. Buddha literally means "awakened" or "that which has become aware". It is the past participle of the Sanskrit root budh, i.e. "to awaken", "to know", or "to become aware". The word Buddha is simply a title that means 'The Awakened One'.

In the Pali Canon (the scriptures of the School of the Elders, or Therevada Buddhists) Buddha refers to anyone who has become Enlightened (i.e. having awakened to the truth, or Dharma) on their own, without a teacher to point out the Dharma, in a time when the teachings do not exist in the world. One who achieves enlightenemt by following the teaching of a Buddha becomes an Arhat or Arahant, not a Buddha.

Buddhism teaches that anyone can become awakened and experience Nirvana. The Buddah taught non-violence, respect for all life, the merit of giving generously and of a simple life-style, serving for many people as a model of the highest standards of humane behavior. The historical Buddha's contribution to humanity in terms of ethical conduct, peace and reverence for life is considered by many to rank as one of the most positive legacies of any individual. Buddhism spread far and wide and although Buddhists have departed from Siddhartha's teaching and have sometimes waged war, Buddhist majority states have been characteristically peaceful and less interested in territorial acquisition and imperial expansion than other nations.

The Historical Buddha

Sources for his Life

The collection of texts of the Buddha's teachings, the Tripitaka (Basket of Three Scriptures) known in English as the Pali Canon contain, although not in a chronological or systematic way, a lot of information about his life. In the second century CE, several birth to death narratives were written, such as the Buddhacarita (“Acts of the Buddha”) by Ashvaghosa. In the fourth or fifth centuries CE, the Mulasarvastivada was compiled. Accounts of the historical Buddhas' life follow a stylized format and also contain stories of miraculous events, which secular historians think were added by his followers in order to emphasize his status. Miraculous stories surrounding his birth are similar to those associated with other significant religious teachers. Buddhists believe that before he 'awoke', or achieved Enlightenment, Siddhartha had lived 549 previous 'existences', each time moving a step closer to 'awakening' by performing a virtuous deed. These stories are told in the Jataka, one of the texts of the Pali Canon. A few scholars have challenged the historicty of Siddhartha, pointing out that we only have insider (Buddhist) sources to authenticate his existence. Interestingly, the same is true for Jesus and to a very large extent for Muhammad as well. Others argue that his existence cannot seriously be doubted. Carrithers (1983) discussing this issues concluded that 'at least the basic outline of his life must be true' [2]. Some argue that even if he is not an historical person, the teachings attributed to him represent an ethic of the highest standard. In addition to the texts available there are also rock inscriptions in India that depict various details of his post-enlightenment story, such as those commissioned by King Ashoka.

Chronology

The time of his birth and death are uncertain. Buddhist accounts record that he was 80 years old when he died. Many scholars date Siddhartha's lifetime from 563 B.C.E. to 483 B.C.E., though some have suggested dates about a century later than this. This chronology is debated and there are some scholars who date his birth about a century later.[3]

Biography

Siddhartha was born in the Himalayan city of Lumbini in modern Nepal. His father, Shuddodana was the local king although his clan, the Sakya, prided themselves on a sense of equality. Siddhartha would also become known by the title 'Sakyamuni', or 'Sage of the Sakyas'. Technically Kshatriyas (the second highest class of warriors) they did not regard Brahmins (or Brahmans), the higest (priestly) class as in any way superior. Perhaps they leaned towards a more democratic type of religion, in which religious obligations could be fulfilled by anyone regardless of their class. Stories surrounding Siddhartha's birth include his mother, Maya, conceiving him after being touched by a white elephant. At his birth, a tree bent to lend her support and she experienced no birth pains. Sidhartha could walk and talk at birth. Stories in some of the non-canonical gospels have Jesus of Nazareth talking at birth, as he also does in the Quran (3: 46). When Siddhartha's father presented him to the people, an old sage, Asita appeared who predicted that he would either conquer the world, or become a great spiritual teacher. Again, this type of 'recognition' story features in that of Jesus (see Luke 1: 30) and of Muhammad, of whom Nestorian monks said that he was the expected or awaited one predicted in their scriptures. Determined that his son would fulfil the first, not the second prediction, Shuddodana protected him from anything ugly, or unhealthy by building for him a series of beautiful palaces which he peoples with young, healthy, handsome women and men. Anyone who ceased to fit this description was removed. The idea was that Sidhartha would be so content that he would not ask such questions as 'why do people suffer?', 'why do people die?' or 'what is the purpose of life?'. He married Yashodhara when they were both 16. Later, they had a son. Yet curiosity about the kingdom he was one day to rule outside the walls of the palace-complex led him to ask Shuddodana if he could visit the city. He was 29. Shuddodana agreed but first tried to sanatize the city by removing the old, the infirm and the ugly. The palace gates were thrown open, and Siddhartha, driven by a charioteer, emerged to the sight of beautiful people shouting greeting to their prince. However, Siddhartha ended up going off track, and saw what became known as 'the four signs'.

The Four Signs

The four signs were an old man, a sick man, a dead man and a Sadhu, or mendicant religious ascetic. Asking his charioteer the meaning of each sign, he was informed that sickness, age and death are universal and that even he might sicken but that certainly he would grow old and die. The mendicant, Siddhartha learned, was dedicating his life to find answers to such questions as 'what is the point of life if it end in death?'.

The Great Renunciation

There and then, Siddhartha knew that he must renounce his life of ease and privilege to discover what causes such suffering as he had witnessed, and how suffering could be overcome. Some accounts have him seeking his father's permission to leave the palace, most depict him leaving at the dead of night when a miraculous sleep overcame all the residents and the palace doors opened up to allow his departure. Swappping his clothes for those of a beggar, he began his quest. His quest led him to examine existing religions and philosophies in which he failed to find any answers. He then turned to an extreme asceticism, attracting disciples. He maintained this practice for six years then realized that by weakening the body he lacked the strength to obtain spiritual or intellectual insight. Suddenly, he stopped starving himself and ate. Disgusted, his disciples deserted him. Resolving not to move from that spot, under a Bodhi Tree at what is now called Bodh Gaya, he went into a deep meditation. Knowing that he was about to 'awaken', the devil tempted him and tried to prevent his enlightenment. The devil did not succeed. Siddhartha 'woke up'. He had ceased to be trapped in the endless cycle of existences known as samsara; he was liberated. He could have decided to leave the material world but he was persuaded by the Hindu God, Brahma, to be compassionate on suffering humanity as the Buddha for this age. He was then 35.

Teachings

He started to teach (which becomes the dharma). Full of compassion for suffering humanity, and for all sentient beings (which have the potential to achieve nirvana), he later said that he was generous with his teaching. He taught and taught and taught. He adapted what he taught to his audience, teaching that people at different stages on the path have different needs. This is called the doctrine of 'skillful means'. Sometimes what he taught appears contradictory but the intent was to avoid dogmatism. He also encouraged his hearers to ask questions and to test what he taught to see if it worked for them. If not, they should adapt his teaching. It would be stupid to carry a raft on dry-land once it had transported us across water, he said. Even over-attachment to his teaching can trap us in samsara. He taught guidelines or precepts, not laws or rules. He used many metaphors and lists to summarize the dharma. The first who responded were his former disciples, who became members of the Sangha (the full-time community of celibate Buddhists). They became Arahants. The path Siddhartha taught was a 'middle way' between extremes (those of self-denial and self-indulgence). He saw himself as a doctor, diagnozing the problem, the dharma as the medicine or prescription and the sangha as the nurse. These are the 'three refuges' (ashrama) that denote self-identification as a Buddhist. Dana, giving, was, he said, an act of merit as this affirms the value of others and avoids self-centeredness. Dana is expecially appropriate for those who do not become Bhikkhus (full-time mendicants) but who stay married. Bhikkhus do not perform physical work, or cook food, but depend on the generosity of lay-Buddhists. In return, they teach. Siddhartha's son, Rahula, became a monk.

In brief, Siddhartha taught that everything in samsara is impermanent, and that as long as people remain attached to a sense of self, to possessions, to power, to food, to pleasure they will also remain trapped in the birth-death-rebith cycle. Since nothing is permanent (anicca), what lives on from one existence to the next is not a 'soul' but a set of experiences. A basic teaching of the Buddha is that there is no-soul (anatta). Buddhism has no need of priests with exclusive privileges; it is democratic. Existence is thus a temporary condition, a mixture of matter, feelings, imagination, will and consciousness. What we think of as 'real' is not really real. Reality lies outside samsara, and is experienced when we 'wake up'. Nirvana (the state of having woken up) can thus not be described. Western scholars have depicted Buddhism as a negative religion that aims at the extinction of the self. For the Buddha, however, to be in nirvana was to know bliss. You can no more describe nirvana than describe what happens when a candle is extinguished, but nirvana is the absence of all desire. His teaching is often summarized as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eight Fold Path:

The Four Noble Truths

all of life is suffering (dukkha)
suffering (dukkha) is caused by desire
suffering can be overcome
by following the Eight Fold Path

The Noble Eight Fold Path: right understanding, right resolve (classed as wisdom), right speech, right action, rigth livelihood (for example, this excludes any life-taking occupation) (classed as ethics), right effort, rigth mindfulness and right meditation (classed as meditation or contemplation).

Full-time mendicants keep a set of precepts, some of which also apply to laity. In addition, Siddhartha gave a detailed 'rule' for the Sangha, contained in the Vinayaya (part of the Pali Canon). Reverence for all sentient beings is cental to Buddhist ethics. Some critics point out that Siddhartha neglected family and domestic life. This is true to the degree that for him the ideal was to become a Bhikkhu, but he did leave many precepts for lay Buddhists as well, including guidance for ruler followed as a successful socio-political polity by the great Indian king, Ashoka whose children took Buddhism to Sri Lanka. Ashoka repudiated violence for 'conquest by righteousness'. Buddhism does not encourage the accumulation of excessive wealth but nor does it demand complete self-denial.

According to the traditional accounts, after teaching for 45 years, Siddhartha died at the age of 80.

Women

At first Siddhartha did not allow women to join the Sangha but later he initiated the order of Bhikkhunis for women, urged to do so by his wife and mother. Yashodhara became an Arahant. Nuns, though, had many more precepts to observe than did men.

Types of Buddhas

In the Pali Canon, there are considered to be two types of Buddhas: Samyaksambuddha (Sammasambuddha) and Pratyeka Buddha (Paccekabuddha).

1. Samyaksambuddhas (Pali: Sammasambuddha) attains Buddhahood and decides to teach others the truth that he has discovered. They lead others to awakening by teaching the Dharma in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before. The Historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, is considered a Samyak-sambuddha.

2. Pratyekabuddhas (Pali: Paccekabuddha), sometimes called Silent Buddhas) are similar to Samyaksambuddhas in that they attain Nirvana and acquire the same powers as a Sammasambuddha does, but they choose not to teach what they have discovered.

They are second to the Buddhas in their spiritual development. They do ordain others; their admonition is only in reference to good and proper conduct (abhisamācārikasikkhā).
In some texts, he is described as one who understands the Dharma by his own efforts, but does not obtain omniscience nor mastery over the Fruits (phalesu vasībhāvam).[1]

3. Shravakabuddhas, (Pali:Savakbuddha or Anubuddha), Disciples of a Sammasambuddha are called Savakas (hearers or followers) or Arahants (Noble One). These terms have slightly varied meanings but can all be used to describe the enlightened disciple. Anubuddha is a rarely used term, but was used by the Buddha in the Khuddakapatha[4] as to those who become Buddha's after being given instruction. Enlightened disciples attain Nirvana as the two types of Buddhas do. The most generally used term for them is Arahant.

Some Mahayana scriptures (and one 12th century Theravadin commentary) use the term Shravakabuddha to describe the enlightened disciple. According to these scriptures there are 3 types of Buddhas. In this case, however, the common definition of the meaning of the word Buddha (as one who discovers the Dhamma without a teacher) does not apply any more.

Characteristics of a Buddha

Nine characteristics

Buddhists meditate on (or contemplate) the Buddha as having nine characteristics:

"The Blessed One is:
  1. a worthy one
  2. perfectly self enlightened
  3. stays in perfect knowledge
  4. well gone
  5. unsurpassed knower of the world
  6. unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed
  7. teacher of the Divine Gods and humans
  8. the Enlightened One
  9. the Blessed One or fortunate one."

These 9 characteristics are frequently mentioned in the Pali Canon, and are chanted daily in many Buddhist monasteries.

Spiritual realizations

All traditions hold that a Buddha has completely purified his mind of greed, aversion and ignorance, and that he has put an end to samsara. A Buddha is fully awakened and has realized the ultimate truth of life (Dharma), and thus ended (for himself) the suffering which unawakened people experience in life. Also, a Buddha is complete in all spiritual powers that a human being can develop, and posesses them in the highest degree possible.

The Nature of Buddha

The various buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha.

Pali Canon: Buddha was human

From the Pali Canon emerges the view that Buddha was human, endowed with the greatest psychic powers (Kevatta Sutta). The body and mind (the five khandhas) of a Buddha are impermanent and changing, just like the body and mind of ordinary people. However, a Buddha recognizes the unchanging nature of the Dharma, which is an eternal principle and an unconditioned and timeless phenomenon. This view is common in the Theravada school, and the other early Buddhist schools. However, the Buddha did not deny the existence of Gods, who feature in his biography, only that they can help us escape samsara. They can grant wordly favors, though. Buddhism has thus been characterized as a 'self-help' system - we have to 'wake up' ourselves, no savior-type figure will do this for us.

Eternal Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism

Some schools of Mahayana Buddhism believe that the Buddha is no longer essentially a human being but has become a being of a different order altogether and that the Buddha, in his ultimate transcendental "body/mind" mode as Dharmakaya, has an eternal and infinite life. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra the Buddha declares: "Nirvana is stated to be eternally abiding. The Tathagata [Buddha] is also thus, eternally abiding, without change." This is a particularly important metaphysical and soteriological doctrine in the ''Lotus Sutra'' and the Tathagatagarbha sutras. According to the Tathagatagarbha sutras, failure to recognise the Buddha's eternity and - even worse - outright denial of that eternity is deemed a major obstacle to the attainment of complete Awakening (bodhi).

Depictions of the Buddha in art

Jade Buddha statue at Shwedagon Paya

Buddhas are frequently represented in the form of statues and paintings. Commonly seen designs include:

  • Seated Buddha
  • Reclining Buddha
  • Standing Buddha
  • Hotei, the obese, Laughing Buddha, usually seen in China. This figure is believed to be a representation of a medieval Chinese monk who is associated with Maitreya, the future Buddha, and it is therefore not technically a Buddha image.
  • The 'Emaciated Buddha', which shows Siddartha Gautama during his extreme ascetic practice of starvation.

Budha-rupas (images) may depict him with the facial features of the country in which the image is made, which represents the Buddha-nature (or the inner potential for enlightenment) within all people.

Markings

Most depictions of Buddha contain a certain number of markings, which are considered the signs of his enlightenment. These signs vary regionally, but two are common:

  • A protuberance on the top of the head (denoting superb mental accuity)
  • Long earlobes (denoting superb perception, and the fact that he may have worn heavy earrings)

In the Pali Canon there is frequent mention of a list of 32 physical marks of Buddha.

Hand-gestures

The poses and hand-gestures of these statues, known respectively as asanas and mudras, are significant to their overall meaning. The popularity of any particular mudra or asana tends to be region-specific, such as the Vajra (or Chi Ken-in) mudra, which is popular in Japan and Korea but rarely seen in India. Others are more universally common, for example, the Varada (Wish Granting) mudra is common among standing statues of the Buddha, particularly when coupled with the Abhaya (Fearlessness and Protection) mudra.

The Buddha and Other Religions

The Buddha thought that different religions may suit different people at differing times on their journey. However, those that teach that an exernal saviour can ultimatelt save people may hinder progress. In Hinduism, the Buddha is often listed as one of the manifestations (avataras) of Vishnu, such as Ram and Krishna. From a Buddhist perspective, this inlusion of Siddhartha as a Hindu deity is probleamtic for several reasons; first, Siddhartha sais that he wsa not a God, second, he rejected the basic Hindu concept of the atman as that within all beings that is a spark of Brahman (Ulitmate Relaity), since his system does not posit any such Reality. Second, while in Vaishnavism, it is devotion to Vishnu (or to one of his manifestations) that will result in release from samsara, thus, one is 'saved', Siddhartha taught that no external agent can assist enlightenment. He may have reacted both to Brahmanism, that left everything to the priests and to the bhakti (devotional) tradition that leaves liberation to the Gods (albeit in return for devotion and a righteous life). Jesus is sometimes included alongside the Buddha. While Christians may be critical of Siddhartha's self-help system, believing that humanity is too sinful to redeem themselves, they often admire Siddhartha's teaching, his ethic and his non-violence. Some scholars have investigated parallels between the sayings of Jesus and of the Buddha [5], while several have argued that Jesus either visited India and studied Buddhism, or that Buddhist influences impacted on the gospels [6]. Buddhists have also written sympathetically about Jesus, commenting on the similarity of Siddhartha's with Jesus' teaching [7].

Relics

After his death, relics of the Buddha (such as his staff, his teach, hair, bones and even a footprint) were distributed throughout India and elsewhere among the Buddhist community and stupas were built to house them. Stupas represent the Buddhas' awakened mind and the path to enlighhtenment that he trod. While the Buddha is no longer within Samsara, Stupas remind people that enlightenment is within everyone's grasp.

Legacy

Siddhartha remains one of the most respected religious teachers, whose non-violent philosophy is increasingly seen to have been precociously insightful in a world where more often than not disputes are resolved violently. The very survival of the planet may depend on humanity maturing to such a degree that diplomacy and negotiation replace violence. Buddhism is the third largest religion. Siddhartha's teaching has been and continues to be the main source of guidance for millions of people, whose goal is to be less self-centred, more compassionate, considerate and kinder towards others. The late-twentieth early twentieth-century world is also waking up to the fact that earth is the planetary home of other species than the human. Siddhartha taught respect for all sentient life. In this, as in his non-violent ethic, he anticipated concerns for the welfare of the whole planet.

Notes

  1. English spelling follows either a transliteration of the original Pali language spoken by Siddhartha and in which the scriptures were written, or of the Sanksrit used by many Buddhists from a later period. For example, the Pali is nibbhana, the Sanskrit nirvana, the Pali is Siddhattha, the Sanskrit Sidhhartha, the Pali is dhamma, the Sanskrit is dharma
  2. Michael Carrithers, The Buddha Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983 ISBN 0192875906 p 3; see pp 5-7 on sources
  3. Lance S. Cousins, "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Series 3, 6.1 (1996), pp. 57-63.
  4. Ratanasutta:56
  5. See Marcus Borg, Jesus and the Buddha, Berkeley, CA: Ulyssess Press, 1997 ISBN 1569754616
  6. See a summary of this material in Clinton Bennett's In Search of Jesus, London: Cassell, 1998 ISBN 0826449166 pp 67-8; 207-8, 322, 339-40.
  7. see books by the 14th Dalai Lama and by the Zen monk, Thich Naht Hahn

Sources

  • Conze, Edward Buddhist Scriptures, NY: Penguin, 1959 ISBN 0140440887 an athology, including biographical material, of Buddhist texts. Dated but an invaluable information source.
  • Rāhula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. New York : Grove Press: distributed by Random House, 1974 ISBN 0802100562 With a foreword by Paul Demiéville and a collection of illustrative texts translated from the original Pali.
  • Swe, Khin Myint Myint. Buddha - The Compassionate Teacher. Seattle, Wash. : May-Su-Thin-Mu and Brothers Maw, c2002 ISBN 0972600906
  • Carrithers, Michael The Buddha: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford Univesity Press, 2001 ISBN 0192854534

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