Difference between revisions of "Bean" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Heaps of beans.jpg|thumb|Green beans]]
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'''Bean''' is a common name for edible plant [[seed]]s or seed pods of several members of the [[Legume]] family (''Fabaceae'', formerly ''Leguminosae'') or the various leguminous trees and shrubs that produce these seeds or pods.
  
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The various species of bean plants include some of the very first plants cultivated by people in both the Old and the New Worlds. They have been and continue to be an important part of the human [[food]] supply, providing [[protein]], [[vitamin]]s, and other nutrients. In recent years, bean consumption has increased due mainly to economic progress in [[India]], home to many vegetarians, and to their increased use in developed countries as people move to healthier diets (FAO 2005). 
  
'''Bean''' is a common name for large plant [[seed]]s of several members of the [[Legume]] family (''Fabaceae'', formerly ''Leguminosae'') used for food or feed.  The various species of bean plants include some of the very first plants cultivated by man in both the Old and the New Worlds. They have been and continue to be an important part of the human food supply.
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Beans, especially [[soybean]]s, which are now the largest bean crop grown, provide other products as well as food. They are also important for their role in fixing [[nitrogen]], which replenishes the soil in which they are grown. They do this through a cooperative, mutually beneficial, [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with [[nitrogen fixation|nitrogen-fixing]] [[bacteria]].
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[[Image:A green bean.jpg|thumb|300px|Common beans on the plant]]
  
 
== Name ==
 
== Name ==
"Bean" originally meant the seed of the broad bean, but was later broadened to include members of the genus ''Phaseolus'' such as the common bean and the runner bean and the related genus ''Vigna''. The term is now applied in a general way to many other related plants such as soybeans, [[pea]]s, lentils, vetches and lupines.
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"Bean" originally meant the seed of the broad bean, but was later broadened to include members of the genus ''Phaseolus'' such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus ''Vigna''. The term is now applied in a general way to many other related plants, such as soybeans, [[pea]]s, lentils, vetches, and lupines.
  
"Bean" can be used as a near synonym of "pulse", an edible legume, though the term "pulses" is usually reserved for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain. Pulses usually excludes crops mainly used for oil extraction (like soybean and peanut) or those used exclusively for forage (like clover and alfalfa). Leguminous crops harvested green for food like snap beans, green peas etc. are classified as vegetable crops.  
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"Bean" can be used as a near synonym of "pulse," an edible legume, though the term "pulses" is usually reserved for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain. The term pulses usually excludes crops mainly used for oil extraction (like soybean and [[peanut]]), or those used exclusively for forage (like [[legume|clover]] and [[legume|alfalfa]]). Beans are often harvested when immature and are eaten as a [[vegetable]], known as "green beans"; in this case they also are not called "pulses."
  
In English usage beans sometimes also refer to seeds or other organs of non ''leguminosae'', for example [[coffee]] beans, castor beans and cocoa beans (which resemble bean seeds), and vanilla beans (which resemble the pods).
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In English usage, beans sometimes also refer to seeds or other organs of non-legumes, for example [[coffee]] beans, castor beans, and cocoa beans (which resemble bean seeds), and [[orchid|vanilla]] beans (which resemble the pods).
  
 
==Old World beans==
 
==Old World beans==
In the Old World beans were first cultivated in the [[Middle East]] perhaps around as 10,000 years ago. Along with their fellow legumes the [[pea]] ''Pisum sativum'' and the bitter vetch ''Vicia ervilia''; these were the broad bean ''Vicia faba'', the lentil ''Lens culinaris'' (not always called a bean), the chickpea ''Cicer arietinum''. The soybean ''Glycine max'' was also cultivated very early in [[China]].
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In the Old World, beans were first cultivated in the [[Middle East]], perhaps around 10,000 years ago. Along with their fellow legumes the [[pea]] (''Pisum sativum''), the [[pea|chickpea]] (''Cicer arietinum''), and the bitter vetch (''Vicia ervilia''), these cultivated plants included the broad bean (''Vicia faba'') and the lentil (''Lens culinaris'') (although it is not always called a bean). The soybean (''Glycine max'') was also cultivated very early in [[China]]. Some of the other Old World beans are the adzuki (or azuki) bean (''Phaseolus angularis''), the  hyacinth bean (''Dolichos lablab''), the winged bean (''Psophocarpus tetragonolobus''), the guar bean (''Cyamopsis tetragonoloba''), and the pigeon pea (''Cajanus cajan'') (Walker 2005).
 
===Broad beans===
 
===Broad beans===
  
'''''Vicia faba''''', the '''broad bean''', '''fava bean''', '''faba bean''', '''horse bean''', '''field bean''' or '''tic bean''' is  native to north [[Africa]] and southwest [[Asia]], and extensively cultivated elsewhere. Although usually classified in the same genus ''Vicia'' as the vetches, some botanists treat it in a separate monotypic genus as ''Faba sativa'' Moench.
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'''''Vicia faba''''', known as the '''broad bean''', '''fava bean''', '''faba bean''', '''horse bean''', '''field bean''' or '''tic bean''', is  native to north [[Africa]] and southwest [[Asia]], and is extensively cultivated elsewhere. Although usually classified in the same genus ''Vicia'' as the vetches, some botanists treat it in a separate monotypic genus as ''Faba sativa'' Moench.
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[[Image:240px-Tuinboon bontbloeiend.jpg|right|thumb|Broad bean plant]]
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[[Image:180px-Tuinboon zaden in peul.jpg|right|thumb|broad beans in the pod]]
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The broad bean plant is upright, 0.5-1.7 meters (2-5 feet) tall, with stout stems with a square cross-section. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 10-25 cm (4-10 inches) long with 2-7 leaflets, and of a gray-green color. Unlike most other vetches, the leaves do not have tendrils for climbing over other vegetation. The [[flower]]s are 1-2.5 cm (0.4-1 inches) long, with five petals, the standard petal white, the wing petals white with a black spot, and the keel petals white.  
  
[[Image:180px-Tuinboon zaden in peul.jpg|left|thumb|broad beans in the pod]]
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The [[fruit]] is a broad leathery pod, green maturing blackish-brown, with a densely downy surface. In the wild species, the pods are 5-10 cm (2-4 inches) long and 1 cm (0.4 inches) diameter, but many modern cultivars developed for food use have pods 15-25 cm long (6-10 inches) and 2-3 cm (about an inch) thick. Each pod contains 3-8 [[seed]]s; round to oval and 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4 inches) in diameter in the wild plant, usually flattened and up to 20-25 mm (0.8-1.2 inches) long, 15 mm (0.6 inches) broad, and 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4 inches) thick in food cultivars.
The broad bean plant is upright 0.5-1.7 meters (2-5 feet) tall, with stout stems with a square cross-section. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 10-25 cm (4-10 inches) long with 2-7 leaflets, and of a gray-green color. Unlike most other vetches, the leaves do not have tendrils for climbing over other vegetation. The [[flower]]s are 1-2.5 cm (0.4-1 inches) long, with five petals, the standard petal white, the wing petals white with a black spot, and the keel petals white. The [[fruit]] is a broad leathery pod, green maturing blackish-brown, with a densely downy surface. In the wild species, the pods are 5-10 cm (2-4 inches) long and 1 cm (0.4 inches) diameter, but many modern [[cultivar]]s developed for food use have pods 15-25 cm long (6-10 inches) and 2-3 cm (about an inch) thick. Each pod contains 3-8 [[seed]]s; round to oval and 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4 inches) in diameter in the wild plant, usually flattened and up to 20-25 mm (0.8-1.2 inches) long, 15 mm (0.6 inches) broad and 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4 inches) thick in food cultivars.
 
  
 
Broad beans require a cool season to develop best and in some places are sown in fall as a winter crop and harvested in spring.
 
Broad beans require a cool season to develop best and in some places are sown in fall as a winter crop and harvested in spring.
  
Broad beans were an important crop throughout ancient and Medieval times. In ancient Rome they began to be cultivated to feed livestock as well as for humans.  In recent times they have become less important as a human food and are mainly grown for animal feed.   China is the largest grower
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Broad beans were an important crop throughout ancient and Medieval times. In ancient Rome, they began to be cultivated in order to feed livestock as well as for humans.  In recent times, they have become less important as a human food and are mainly grown for animal feed. China is the largest grower today, producing about 60 percent of the world's supply. Europe and North Africa are also centers of broad bean cultivation (Muehlbauer 1997).
 
 
[[Image:240px-Tuinboon bontbloeiend.jpg|right|thumb|Broad bean plant]]
 
  
 
===Lentils===
 
===Lentils===
 
[[Image:180px-Illustration Lens culinaris0.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration of the lentil plant, 1885]]
 
[[Image:180px-Illustration Lens culinaris0.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration of the lentil plant, 1885]]
  
The '''lentil''' (''Lens culinaris'') is a brushy [[annual plant]] of the [[Fabaceae|legume]] family, grown for its lens-shaped [[seed]]s. It is about 40cm tall and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.
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The '''lentil''' (''Lens culinaris'') is a brushy annual [[plant]], about 40 cm (16 inches) tall. Its seeds are lens-shaped (from which comes the word "lens"). They grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each. With 25 percent protein, it is the [[vegetable]] with the highest level of protein other than soybeans, and because of this it is a very important part of the diet in many parts of the world, and especially South [[Asia]], which has a large vegetarian population.
The plant originated in the [[Near East]], and has been part of the human diet since the aceramic [[Neolithic]], being one of the [[Neolithic founder crops|first crops domesticated]] in the Near East. With 25% protein it is the vegetable with the highest level of protein other than [[soybeans]], and because of this it is a very important part of the diet in many parts of the world, and especially [[South Asia]] which has a large vegetarian population.
 
 
 
A variety of lentils exist with colors that range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown and black. The colours of the seeds when removed from the pods also vary, and there are large and small varieties. They are sold in many forms, with or without the pods, whole or split.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The seeds have a short cooking time (especially for small varieties with the husk removed, such as the common red lentil) and a distinctive earthy flavor. Lentils are used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious [[soup]] all over [[Europe]] and [[North America]], sometimes combined with some form of [[pork]].  They are frequently combined with [[rice]], which has a similar cooking time. Lentils are used throughout the [[Mediterranean]] regions and the [[Middle East]].
 
 
 
In South Asia, lentils are known as [[dal]], as are most sorts of dried legumes. The dishes made predominantly of lentils are also known as dal.
 
 
 
Lentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the world. About half of the worldwide production of lentils is from [[India]], most of which is consumed in the domestic market. [[Canada]] is the largest export producer of lentils in the world and [[Saskatchewan]] is the most important producing region in Canada.  Whereas, Eastern Washington (especially the Palouse Region) is the most important producing region in the United States. The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) estimates that world production of lentils totalled 3.2 million metric tons (MT) in 2003. Canada produced 520,000 MT and, according to the market analysis company STAT Communications, will likely export 400,000 MT during the 2003-04 marketing year, which runs from August to July. The FAO estimates world trade in lentils totalled 1.2 million MT in 2002, with Canada exporting 382,000 MT during the calendar year.
 
 
 
A famous variety of small green lentils known for their earthy flavor is grown in [[Le Puy-en-Velay|Le Puy, France]]. These Le Puy lentils (''lentilles du Puy'') were the first dry vegetable protected by the French [[Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée|AOC (Appelation d'Origine Controlée) designation]].
 
 
 
====Trivia====
 
The [[lens (optics)|optical lens]] is so named after the lentil (Latin: ''lens''), whose shape it resembles. The same applies also to Greek language, where the word ''φακός'' means lens and ''φακή'' means lentil.
 
 
 
====Nutritional value====
 
 
 
 
 
As well as a high level of proteins, lentils also contain dietary fiber, vitamin B1, and minerals. Red (or pink) lentils contain a lower concentration of fiber than green lentils (11% rather than 31%).
 
 
 
====References====
 
*[[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], ''The Oxford Companion to Food''. ISBN 0192115790.
 
 
 
===Chickpeas===
 
The '''chickpea''', '''chick pea''', '''garbanzo bean''', '''ceci bean''', '''bengal gram''', '''chana''' or '''channa''' (''Cicer arietinum'') is an edible [[legume]] (British " pulse") of the family [[Fabaceae]], subfamily [[Faboideae]].
 
 
 
The plant is 20 to 50 cm high and has small feathery leaves on both sides of the stem. One seedpod contains two or three peas. The flowers are white- or reddish-blue. Chickpeas need a subtropical or tropical climate and more than 400 mm annual rain. They can be grown in a temperate climate, but yields will be much lower.
 
  
====Desi vs. kabuli chickpeas====
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A variety of lentils exist with colors that range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown and black. The colors of the seeds when removed from the pods also vary, and there are large and small varieties. They are sold in many forms, with or without the pods, whole or split.
There are two types of chickpea:
 
*Desi - "with small, dark seeds and a rough coat (prevailing in the Indian subcontinent, Ethiopia, Mexico, Iran)"
 
*Kabuli- "with light-coloured, larger seeds and a smoother coat (mainly grown in S Europe, N Africa, Afghanistan, introduced to India only in the 18th cent., Chile)."[[http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/Mansfeld/Taxonomy/datenvoll.afp?module=mf&source=botnam&taxid=30808&akzanz=0&rehm=0]]
 
  
The Desi form is also known as Bengal gram or chana. The Kabuli form is the kind grown e.g. in the Mediterranean today. The desi-type closely resembles those seeds found on archaeological sites and the wild ancestor, so it is probably the earlier form. Desi-type chickpeas are said to have a very low [[glycemic index]][http://www.mendosa.com/chanadal.html] making it good for many people with blood sugar problems.  
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In South Asia, lentils are known as dal, as are most sorts of dried legumes. The dishes made predominantly of lentils are also known as dal.  
  
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Lentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the world. About half of the worldwide production of lentils is from [[India]], most of which is consumed in the domestic market.  
  
====Cultivation and uses====
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A famous variety of small green lentils known for their earthy flavor is grown in Le Puy, France. These Le Puy lentils (''lentilles du Puy'') were the first dry vegetable protected by the French Appelation d'Origine Controlée designation.
The chickpea is grown in the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]], western [[Asia]] and [[India]]. The wild ancestor of domesticated chickpeas is ''Cicer reticulatum''. As this only grows in southeast Turkey, this is the most likely locus of domestication.  
 
 
 
Mature chickpeas can be eaten in salads, cooked in stews, ground into a flour called [[gram flour]] (also known as ''besan'', and used in [[Indian cuisine]]), ground and shaped in balls and fried as [[falafel]], stirred into a batter and baked to make [[farinata]], cooked and ground into a paste called [[hummus]], or roasted, spiced and eaten as a snack (e.g. [[leblebi]]). In India, where they are referred to as "chana," chickpeas provide a major source of protein in a predominantly vegetarian culture.  Chickpea flour is also used to make "[[Tofu#Tofu made from other legumes|Burmese tofu]]," a food originating with the [[Shan]] people of [[Myanmar|Burma]]. Unripe chickpeas are often picked out of the pod and eaten as a raw snack in many parts of [[India]], and the plants are eaten there as a [[green vegetable]] in [[salad]]s.
 
 
 
====History of cultivation====
 
[[Neolithic founder crops|Domesticated]] chickpeas are first known from the aceramic levels of [[Jericho]] ([[Pre-pottery neolithic B|PPNB]]) and [[Cayönü]] in Turkey and the pottery [[Neolithic]] in Hacilar, [[Turkey]]. They are found in the late Neolithic in [[Thessaly]], at [[Kastanas]], [[Lerna]] and [[Dimini]] at ca. 3500 B.C.E. In the southern French cave of L'Abeurador Dept., [[Aude]], wild chickpeas have been found in [[Mesolithic]] layers, dated by [[radiocarbon dating]] to 6790±90 B.C.E.
 
 
 
By the [[Bronze Age]], they were known in [[Italy]] and [[Greece]]. In classical Greece, they were called erébinthos, eaten both as a staple and as a dessert, and consumed raw when young. The Romans knew of several varieties, for example venus, ram and punic chickpeas. They were cooked into a [[broth]] and roasted as a snack. The Roman gourmet [[Apicius]] gives several recipes for chickpeas. Carbonised chickpeas have been found at the Roman legionary fort at [[Neuss]] (Novaesium), [[Germany]] in layers of the 1st century CE, along with rice.
 
 
 
Chickpeas are mentioned in [[Charlemagne]]'s ''Capitulare de villis'' (ca. 800 C.E.) as cicer italicum, to be grown in each [[manorialism|imperial demesne]]. [[Albertus Magnus]] mentions three varieties: red, white, and black. According to [[Nicholas Culpeper|Culpeper]], "chick-pease or cicers" are less "[[flatulence|windy]]" than peas and more nourishing. Placed under the dominion of [[medical astrology|Venus]], they offered a number of medical uses, including increasing sperm and milk, provoking menstruation and urine, and helping to treat [[kidney stone]]s. Wild cicers were thought to be especially potent.
 
 
 
Chickpeas were grown in some areas of Germany for use as a [[coffee]] substitute in the [[World War I|First World War]].
 
 
 
====Etymology====
 
The name "chickpea" derives eventually from the Latin name ''[[cicer]]'' through the French ''chiche''. The name [[Cicero]] is derived from this plant.  "Garbanzo" is from the [[Spanish language]], an alteration (perhaps influenced by Old Spanish ''garroba'' or ''algarroba'') of the Old Spanish ''arvanço'', perhaps from Greek ''erebinthos''.[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=garbanzo]
 
 
 
====Nutrition====
 
Among other things, they are a good source of zinc for the human body.[http://www.vegsoc.org/info/zinc.html#diet]
 
 
 
They are also very high in dietary fiber.
 
 
 
====Trivia====
 
It has been suggested (among other explanations) that the [[chickenpox]] disease gets its name from chick peas, which resembled the chickenpox [[blister]]s that appeared on the skin.
 
  
 
===Soybeans===
 
===Soybeans===
The '''Soybean''' ([[American English|U.S.]]) or '''Soya bean''' ([[British English|UK]]) (''Glycine max'') is a species of [[legume]], native to eastern [[Asia]]. It is an [[annual plant]], which may vary in growth habit and height. It may grow prostrate, not growing above 20 cm (7.8 inches); up to stiffly erect [[plant]]s growing to 2 meters (6.5 feet). The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray pubescence. The [[leaf|leaves]] are trifoliate (sometimes with 5 leaflets), the leaflets 6-15 cm (2-6 inches) long and 2-7 cm (1-3 inches) broad; they fall before the seeds are mature. The small, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are either white or purple; The [[fruit]] is a hairy [[legume|pod]] that grow in clusters of 3-5, with each pod 3-8 cm (1-3 inches) long and usually containing 2-4 (rarely more) [[seed]]s 5-11 mm in diameter.
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The '''Soybean''' (U.S.) or '''Soya bean''' (UK) (''Glycine max'') is native to eastern [[Asia]]. It is an annual [[plant]], which may vary in growth habit and height. It may grow prostrate, not growing above 20 cm (7.8 inches) or be stiffly erect, growing to 2 meters (6.5 feet). The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray pubescence. The [[leaf|leaves]] are trifoliate (sometimes with 5 leaflets), the leaflets 6-15 cm (2-6 inches) long and 2-7 cm (1-3 inches) broad; they fall before the seeds are mature. The small, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are either white or purple; the [[fruit]] is a hairy [[legume|pod]] that grow in clusters of 3-5, with each pod 3-8 cm (1-3 inches) long and usually containing 2-4 (rarely more) [[seed]]s 5-11 mm (0.2-0.5 inches) in diameter.
 
 
Like corn and some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety (a [[cultigen]]) with a very large number of [[cultivar]]s. However, it is known that the progenitor of the modern soybean was a vine-like plant, that grew prone on the ground.
 
 
 
Beans are classed as [[pulses]] whereas soybeans are classed as [[oilseeds]]. The word soy is derived from the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] word ''[[shoyu]]'' (soy sauce/soya sauce).
 
==== Physical characteristics ==== 
 
Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in several [[husk|hull]] or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the [[cotyledon]] and [[hypocotyl]] (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is "cracked" the seed will not [[germinate]]. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water.  
 
   
 
It is a remarkable fact that seeds such as soybeans, containing very high levels of [[soy protein]], can undergo [[desiccation]] yet survive and revive after water absorption. A.Carl Leopold, son of [[Aldo Leopold]], set out twenty years ago to answer this very question at the [[Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research]] at [[Cornell University]]. Studying the survival of soybeans and corn he found each to have a range of soluble sugars [[carbohydrate]] protecting the seed's cell viability.[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1075542]. Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes" and proteins in the dry state.
 
 
 
====Chemical composition of the seed====
 
The oil and protein content together account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% ash. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% [[cotyledons]] and 2% [[hypocotyl]] axis or germ.
 
 
 
The majority of [[soy protein]] is a relatively heat-stable storage protein.  It is this heat-stability of the soy protein that enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soymilk and textured vegetable protein(soy flour) to be made.
 
 
 
The principal soluble [[carbohydrates]], saccharides, of  mature soybeans are the disaccharide [[sucrose]](range 2.5-8.2%), the trisaccharide [[raffinose]]( 0.1-1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule  connected to one molecule of [[galactose]], and the tetrasaccharide [[stachyose]](1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose.
 
While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the  viability of the soybean seed from  desiccation{see above section on physical characteristics} they are not digestable sugars and therefore contribute to [[flatulence]] and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, etc.
 
 
 
Soluble soy carbohydrates are found mainly in the [[whey]] and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates,  [[tofu]], soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans  are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there maybe some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous [[bifidobacteria]] in the colon against [[putrefactive]] bacteria.
 
 
 
The insoluble  carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]], and [[pectin]]. The  majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to [[dietary fiber]].
 
 
 
====Cultivation====
 
[[Image:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.]]
 
  
Soybeans are an important global crop. It is grown for its oil and protein. The bulk of the crop is solvent extracted for vegetable oil and the defatted soy meal is used for animal feed. A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly for food by humans. Soybean products, however, appear in a large variety of processed foods.  
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Like corn and some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty.
  
Soybeans have been a crucial crop in eastern [[Asia]] since long before written records, and they are still a major crop in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]] today. Soy was not actaully used as a food item until they discovered fermentation techniques around 2000 years ago. Prior to fermented products such as soy sauce, tempeh, natto,and miso, soy was considered sacred for it's use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen. The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food crops.{[[citation needed]]} Soy was first introduced to [[Europe]] in the early 1700s and the [[United States]] in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. [[Benjamin Franklin]] wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America, soy was considered an industrial productonly and not utilized as a food prior to the 1920's.
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[[Image:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.]]
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Soybeans have been a crucial crop in eastern [[Asia]] since long before written records, and they are still a major crop in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]] today. Soybeans were first introduced to [[Europe]] in the early 1700s and the [[United States]] in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. [[Benjamin Franklin]] wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910.  
  
Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 °C to 30 °C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes perform [[nitrogen fixation]] by establishing a [[symbiotic]] relationship with the bacterium ''[[Rhizobia|Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' ([[synonymy|syn.]] ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). However, for best results an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop [[cultivar]]s generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take between 80-120 days from sowing to harvesting.
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Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20°C and over 40°C (104°F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content.  
  
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Although soybeans are native to southeast Asia, 45 percent of the world's soybean area, and 55 percent of production, is in the United States. The U.S. produced 75 million metric tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], China, and [[India]].
  
Soybeans are native to southeast Asia, but 45 percent of the world's soybean area, and 55 percent of production, is in the United States. The U.S. produced 75 million metric tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], China, and [[India]].
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Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. [[Vegetable]] types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. [[Tofu]] and soymilk producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity.
  
Environmental groups, such as [[Greenpeace]] and the [[WWF]], have reported that soybean cultivation and the threat to increase soybean cultivation in Brazil is destroying huge areas of [[Amazon rainforest]] and encouraging [[deforestation]]. Besides destruction of the rainforest, it destroys unique [[biodiversity]] and causes a billion dollar's [[loss]] on [[technology]] from [[bionics]] revenue. American soil scientist, Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the  infertile [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil could grow soybeans will be  awarded the 2006 [[World Food Prize]] on October 19,2006.[http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/World.Food.prize.ssl.html]
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Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38-45 percent) protein content as well as its high (20 percent) oil content. Soybeans are the leading agricultural export of the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.
  
The first research on soybeans in the United States was conducted by [[George Washington Carver]] at [[Tuskegee, Alabama]], but he decided it was too exotic a crop for the poor black farmers of the South so he turned his attention to peanuts.  [[Peanut]]s, soybeans, or other [[legume]] plants that would replenish the soil with [[nitrogen]] and [[mineral]]s were planted for two years and then [[cotton]] on the third year. A two-year rotation system alternating [[maize]] and soybeans is common in much of the U.S.
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Soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with salt, under the Japanese name ''edamame''. Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in Hawai'i, where, as in China, Japan, and Korea the bean and products made from the bean (miso, natto, tofu, douchi, doenjang, ganjang and others) are a popular part of the diet.  
  
====Uses====
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The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or ''soya'') include soy meal, soy flour, "soy milk", tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of soy sauce (or ''shoyu'' in Japanese from which the English word "soy" is said to come).
Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. [[Tofu]] and [[soymilk]] producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity.
 
 
 
Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38-45%) [[protein]] content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the leading agricultural export in the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.
 
 
 
Soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with [[edible salt|salt]], under the Japanese name ''[[edamame]]''. Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]], where, as in [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] the bean and products made from the bean ([[miso]], [[natto]], [[tofu]], [[douchi]], doenjang, ganjang and others) are a popular part of the diet.
 
 
 
The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or ''soya'') include soy meal, soy [[flour]], "[[soy milk]]", [[tofu]], [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of [[vegetarian food]]s, some of them intended to imitate [[meat]]), [[tempeh]], soy [[lecithin]] and [[soybean oil]]. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of [[soy sauce]] (or ''shoyu'').
 
  
 
[[Image:Soybeans.jpg|thumb|right|Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.]]
 
[[Image:Soybeans.jpg|thumb|right|Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.]]
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Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). It is the starting material for  production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.
  
==== Oil ====
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Infant formulas based on soy are used by lactose-intolerant babies, and for babies that are allergic to human milk proteins and cow milk proteins. The formulas are sold in powdered, ready to feed, or concentrated liquid forms.
In processing soybeans for oil extraction and subsequent soy flour production, selection of high quality, sound, clean, dehulled yellow soybeans is very important. Soybeans having a dark colored seed coat, or even beans with a dark hilum will inadvertently leave dark specks in the flour, an undesirable factor when used in food products. All commercial soybeans in the United States are yellow or yellow brown.
 
  
To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial [[hexane]]. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]]. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean husks are used mainly as animal feed.
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It has been recommended internationally by pediatric associations that soy formulas not be used as the primary or sole source of nutrition for infants due to the high risk of several deficiencies, including [[calcium]] and [[zinc]].
  
The major [[unsaturated]] fatty acids in soybean oil [[triglycerides]] are [[Alpha-linolenic acid|linolenic acid]],C18:3; [[linoleic acid]], C-18:2; and [[oleic acid]],C-18:1. Soybean oil has a relatively high proportion, 7-10%, of oxidation prone linolenic acid, which is an undesirable  property for continuous service, such as in a restaurant. Two companies, [[Monsanto]] and [[DuPont/Bunge]] in 2004 introduced low linolenic, (C18:3; cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 octadecatrienoic acid) [[Roundup Ready]] soybeans: the former introduced a new soybean seed variety called "Vistive" and the latter Pioneer seed variety 93M20. Dupont/Bunge is marketing its low linolenic soybean oil under the brand name [[Nutrium]]. The idea is that reducing or eliminating the triple unsaturated fatty acid, linolenic, also eliminates the tendency to be a  paint-like [[drying oil]] producing noticeable rancidity. In the past [[hydrogenation]] reduced the unsaturation in linolenic acid but produced the unnatural [[trans]] fatty acid [[trans fat]] configuration whereas in nature the configuration is [[cis]].
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Many traditional dairy products have been imitated using processed soybeans, and imitation products such as "soy milk," "soy yogurt," and "soy cream cheese" are readily available in most supermarkets. These imitation products are derived from extensive processing to produce a texture and appearance similar to the real dairy-based ones. Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of calcium, since the high [[calcium]] content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the pulp. Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well.
  
One unintended consequence of moving away from partially hydrogenated soybean oil (containing trans fatty acids) is the switch  to partially saturated [[palm oil]] for  frying, especially in China. This fact is resulting in a severe threat of deforestation to pristine forests in Indonesia followed by the planting of [[oil palm]] plantations.
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Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and biodiesel. Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of vodka.
<ref>Forests in Southeast Asia Fall to Prosperity's Ax 
 
will grow vast plantations for palm oil, an ... would develop in Indonesia as part of a $ ... '' From Indonesia to Malaysia to Myanmar, ...April 29, 2006 - By JANE PERLEZ; Muktita Suhartono contributed reporting for this article. (NYT)-New York Times - World - News - 1431 words.<\ref>
 
[http://www.cspinet.org/palmoilreport/index.html Center for Science in the Public Interest]
 
  
In the 2002-2003 growing season, 30.6 million [[metric ton]]s of soybean oil were produced worldwide, constituting about half of worldwide edible vegetable oil production, and thirty percent of all fats and oils produced, including animal fats and oils derived from tropical plants.<ref>[[United States Department of Agriculture]], Agricultural Statistics 2004. Table 3-51.</ref>
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[[Henry Ford]] promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest lead to 2 bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream, and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping. The Ford development of so called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenolformaldehyde plastics.
  
==== Meal ====
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Today, very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from soy pulp, a byproduct of tofu production.
Soybean meal, the material remaining after solvent extraction of soybean flakes, with a 50% [[soy protein]] content, toasted (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam), and ground, in a [[hammer mill]], provided the energy for the American revolution, beginning in the 1930s, of growing farm animals such as [[poultry]] and [[domestic pig|swine]] on an industrial scale; and more recently the [[aquaculture]] of [[catfish]].
 
  
====Flour====
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==New World beans==
Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize [[denaturation]] of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.
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Beans were cultivated early in the New World, both in South and North AmericaThe most important bean species from the New World is the common bean (''Phaseolus vulgaris''). Other New World beans include Lima beans (''Phaseolus limensis''), runner beans (''Phaseolus coccineus''), tepary beans (''Phaseolus acutifolius, var. latifolius''), and butter beans (''Phaseolus lunatus'').
*Defatted soy flour, is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil.
 
*Full-fat soy flour, is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used  for grinding rather than the more common hammermill.
 
*Low fat soy flour, is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%.
 
*High fat soy flour, is produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, at the level of 15%.
 
*Lecithinated soy flour, is made by adding soybean [[lecithin]] to defatted, low fat or high fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. The lecithin content varies  up to 15%.
 
  
====[[Infant formula]]====
 
Infant formulas based on soy are used by lactose-intolerant babies; and for babies that are allergic to human milk proteins and cow milk proteins. The formulas are sold in powdered, ready to feed, or concentrated liquid forms.
 
 
It has been recomended internationally by pediactric associations that soy formulas not be used as the primary or sole source of nutrition for infants due to the high risk of several deficiencies including calcium and zinc.
 
 
====Substitute for existing products====
 
Many traditional [[dairy product]]s have been imitated using processed soybeans, and imitation products such as "[[soy milk]]," "soy [[yogurt]]" and "soy [[cream cheese]]" are readily available in most [[supermarket]]s. These imitation products are derived from extensive processing to produce a texture and appearance similar to the real dairy-based ones. Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of [[calcium]], since the high calcium content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the [[soy pulp|pulp]]. Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well.
 
 
====Other products ====
 
Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, [[soap]], [[cosmetics]], [[resin]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[ink]]s, [[crayon]]s, [[solvent]]s, and [[biodiesel]].  Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of [[vodka]].
 
 
[[Henry Ford]] promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest lead to 2 bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial [[soy milk]], ice cream and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping.
 
 
The Ford development of  so called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of  soybean flour and wood flour to [[phenolformaldehyde plastics]].
 
 
In 1931 Ford, who said, "most people dig their graves with their teeth", hired the chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert in a  "Quest" for artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a [[formaldehyde]] bath which was given the name [[Azlon]] by the Federal Trade Commission. Pilot plant production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, but never reached the commercial market. However, Henry Ford did have the "now famous" suit made for him of Azlon which he wore on special occasions.
 
The winning textile fiber in the "Quest" for artificial silk was, of course, [[Nylon]] a synthetic [[polyamide]] or artificial protein discovered in 1935 by Wallace H.Carothers at [[DuPont]].
 
[Soybeans and Soybean Products, Vol.II,edited by K.H. Markley,1951]
 
 
Today,  very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from okara or [[soy pulp]], a by- product of [[tofu]] production.
 
 
==New World beans==
 
 
===Common beans===
 
===Common beans===
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[[image:DarkRedKidney.jpg|thumb|left|Kidney beans]]
  
The '''common bean''', ''[[Phaseolus]] vulgaris'', indigenous to the [[Americas]], is an [[herb]]aceous [[annual plant]] domesticated independently in ancient [[Mesoamerica]] and the [[Andes]],  and now grown worldwide for its edible [[bean]], popular both dry and as a [[green bean]]. The [[leaf]] is occasionally used as a [[leaf vegetable]], and the [[straw]] is used for [[fodder]]. [[Botany|Botanically]], the common bean is classified as a [[dicotyledon]]. Along with [[squash]] and [[maize]], beans were the [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|"Three sisters"]] that provided the foundation of [[Native American]] agriculture. As a [[legume]], beans provided the [[Rhizobia|nitrogen fixing bacteria]] which supplied that essential nutrient to the other two crops.
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The '''common bean''' (''Phaseolus vulgaris'') was domesticated independently in ancient Mesoamerica and the [[Andes]],  and is now grown worldwide for its edible bean, popular both dry and as a green bean. The [[leaf]] is occasionally used as a leaf vegetable, and the straw is used for fodder. Along with squash and [[maize]], beans were the "three sisters" that provided the foundation of [[Native American]] [[agriculture]].  
 
 
==== Description ====
 
 
 
The common bean is a highly variable species.  Bush varieties form erect bushes 20&ndash;60&nbsp;cm tall, while pole or running varieties form [[vine]]s 2&ndash;3&nbsp;m long.  All varieties bear alternate, green or purple [[leaf|leaves]], divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6&ndash;15&nbsp;cm long and 3&ndash;11&nbsp;cm wide.  The white, pink, or purple [[flower]]s are about 1&nbsp;cm long, and give way to pods 8&ndash;20&nbsp;cm long, 1&ndash;1.5&nbsp;cm wide, green, yellow, black or purple in color, each containing 4&ndash;6 beans.  The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5&nbsp;cm long, range widely in color, and are often mottled in two or more colors.
 
 
 
As the common bean is a [[dicot]], it germinates as such:
 
* The [[radicle|primary root]] emerges through the seed coats while the seed is still buried in the soil.
 
* The [[hypocotyl]] emerges from the seed coats and pushes its way up through the soil. It is bent in a hairpin shape — the [[hypocotyl arch]] ('''Crozier's hook''') — as it grows up. The two cotyledons protect the [[epicotyl]] structures — the [[plumule]] — from mechanical damage.
 
* Once the hypocotyl arch emerges from the soil, it straightens out. This response is triggered by light (phototropism). Both red light, absorbed by phytochrome and blue light, absorbed by cryptochrome can do the job.
 
* The cotyledons spread apart, exposing the epicotyl, consisting of two primary leaves and the [[apical meristem]].
 
* In many dicots, the [[cotyledons]] not only supply their food stores to the developing plant but also turn green and make more food by photosynthesis until they drop off.
 
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:HypocotylArch.gif|Time lapse photo of a bean plant germination, courtesy Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.]] —>
 
 
 
  
====Toxicity====
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The common bean is a highly variable species. Bush varieties form erect bushes 20-60 cm (8-24 inches) tall, while pole or running varieties form vines 2-3 meters (6-10 feet) long.  All varieties bear alternate, green or purple leaves, divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6-15 cm (2.5-6 inches) long and 3-11 cm (1-4 inches) wide.  The white, pink, or purple [[flower]]s are about 1 cm  (0.4 inches) long, and give way to pods 8-20 cm (3-8 inches) long, 1-1.5 cm (about 0.5 inches) wide, green, yellow, black or purple in color, each containing 4-6 beans. The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5 cm (0.6 inches) long, range widely in color, and are often mottled in two or more colors. There are many cultivated varieties of common beans including navy beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, black beans, and many others.
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[[Image:Heaps of beans.jpg|thumb|Green beans]] 
  
Before they are eaten, the raw bean seeds should be boiled for at least ten minutes to degrade a [[toxin|toxic]] compound - the [[lectin]] [[phytohaemagglutinin]] - found in the bean which would otherwise cause severe gastric upset. This compound is present in many varieties (and in some other species of bean), but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. Although in the case of dry beans the ten minutes required to degrade the toxin is much shorter than the hours required to fully cook the beans themselves, outbreaks of poisoning have been associated with the use of [[slow cooker]]s whose low cooking temperatures may be unable to degrade the toxin. [[Sprouts]] of [[pulses]] high in haemaglutins should not be eaten. Red kidney beans, especially, should not be sprouted.
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Before they are eaten, the raw bean seeds should be boiled for at least ten minutes to degrade a toxic compound&mdash;the lectin phytohaemagglutinin&mdash;found in the bean, which would otherwise cause severe gastric upset. This compound is present in many varieties (and in some other species of bean), but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. Although in the case of dry beans, the ten minutes required to degrade the toxin is much shorter than the hours required to fully cook the beans themselves, outbreaks of poisoning have been associated with the use of slow cookers whose low cooking temperatures may be unable to degrade the toxin. Sprouts of beans high in haemaglutins should not be eaten. Red kidney beans, especially, should not be sprouted.
  
==== Dry beans ====
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The common bean is high in [[starch]], [[protein]], and dietary fiber, and an excellent source of [[iron]], [[potassium]], [[selenium]], [[molybdenum]], [[thiamine]], [[vitamin]] B6, and [[folic acid]].
 
 
Similar to other beans, the common bean is high in [[starch]], [[protein]] and [[dietary fiber]] and an excellent source of [[iron]], [[potassium]], [[selenium]], [[molybdenum]], [[thiamine]], [[vitamin B6]], and [[folic acid]].
 
 
 
Dry beans will keep indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place, but as time passes, their [[nutrition|nutritive]] value and [[flavor]] degrades and cooking times lengthen.  Dried beans are almost always cooked by [[boiling]], often after having been soaked for several hours. While the soaking step is not necessary, it shortens cooking time somewhat and results in a more evenly textured pot of beans. In addition, discarding one or more soaking waters leaches out hard-to-digest complex sugars that can cause [[flatulence]]. There are several methods, the power soak method is to boil beans for three minutes, then set aside 2-4 hours, then drain and discard water and proceed with cooking. Common beans take longer to cook than most [[Pulse (legume)|pulses]]:  cooking times vary from one to four hours but are substantially reduced with [[pressure cooking]]. The traditional spice to use with beans is [[Epazote]] which is also said to aid digestion, and [[Kombu]] (a type of seaweed) can be added to beans as they cook to improve their digestion as well.  Salt, sugar, and acidic foods, like tomatoes, will harden uncooked beans and therefore should be added last, after the beans have been completely cooked.
 
 
 
Dry beans may be also be bought pre-cooked and [[canning|canned]] as [[refried beans]], or whole with [[water]], [[edible salt|salt]], and sometimes [[sugar]].
 
 
 
==== Green beans ====
 
{{main|Green beans}}
 
[[Image:Blanching.jpg|right|240px|thumb|Blanching green common beans]]
 
 
 
Green common beans are also called '''string beans''', '''stringless beans''' (depending on whether the pod has a tough, fibrous "string" running along its length), or '''snap beans'''.  Compared to the dry beans, they provide less starch and protein, and more [[vitamin A]] and [[vitamin C]]. The green beans are often [[steaming|steamed]], [[stir frying|stir-fried]], or [[baking|baked]] in [[casserole]]s.
 
 
 
==== Shelling beans ====
 
 
 
As with other beans, prominently among them [[lima bean]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[pea]]s, and [[Vicia faba|fava bean]]s, common beans can be used for fresh shell beans, also called shelling beans, which are fully mature beans harvested from the pod before they have begun to dry.
 
 
 
Nutritionally, shell beans are similar to dry beans, but in the kitchen are treated as a vegetable, often steamed, fried, or made into soups.
 
 
 
==== Popping beans ====
 
 
 
The '''nuña''' is an Andean subspecies, ''Phaseolus vulgaris'' subsp. ''nunas'' (formerly ''Phaseolus vulgaris (Nuñas Group)''), with round multicolored seeds looking like pigeon eggs. When cooked on high heat the bean explodes, exposing the inner part, in the manner of [[popcorn]] and other [[puffed grain]]s.
 
  
 
===Lima beans===
 
===Lima beans===
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[[Image:Lima beans.jpg|thumb|left|Lima beans]]
  
The '''Lima bean''' or '''butter bean''' or '''Liam and Alec''' (''[[Phaseolus]] lunatus'', [[Fabaceae]]) is grown as a [[vegetable]] for its mature and immature [[bean]]s. Also known as '''Haba bean''', '''Burma bean''', '''Guffin bean''', '''Hibbert bean''', '''Java bean''', '''Sieva bean''', '''Rangood bean''', '''Madagascar bean''', '''Paiga''', '''Paigya''', '''Prolific bean''', '''Civet bean''' and '''Sugar bean'''
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The '''Lima bean''' (''Phaseolus lunatus'') is grown as a [[vegetable]] for its mature and immature beans. It is also known as '''Haba bean''', '''Burma bean''', '''Guffin bean''', '''Hibbert bean''', '''Java bean''', '''Sieva bean''', '''Rangood bean''', '''Madagascar bean''', '''Paiga''', '''Paigya''', '''Prolific bean''', '''Civet bean''' and '''Sugar bean'''
  
The lima bean is of [[Andes|Andean]] and [[Mesoamerica]]n origin. Two separate [[domestication]] events are believed to have occurred. The first, taking place in the Andes around 6500 B.C.E., produced a large-seeded variety (Lima type), while the second, taking place most likely in Mesoamerica around 800 C.E., produced a small-seeded variety (Sieva type). By 1301 AD, cultivation spread to [[North America]], and in the sixteenth century arrived and began to be cultivated in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]].
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The lima bean is of Andean and Mesoamerican origin. Two separate domestication events are believed to have occurred. The first, taking place in the Andes around 6500 B.C.E., produced a large-seeded variety (Lima type), while the second, taking place most likely in Mesoamerica around 800 C.E., produced a small-seeded variety (Sieva type). By around 1300 AD, cultivation spread to [[North America]].
  
 
The small-seeded wild form (Sieva type) is found distributed from [[Mexico]] to [[Argentina]], generally below 1600 meters above sea level, while the large-seeded wild form (Lima type) is found distributed in [[Ecuador]] and the north of [[Peru]], between 320 and 2030 meters above sea level.
 
The small-seeded wild form (Sieva type) is found distributed from [[Mexico]] to [[Argentina]], generally below 1600 meters above sea level, while the large-seeded wild form (Lima type) is found distributed in [[Ecuador]] and the north of [[Peru]], between 320 and 2030 meters above sea level.
  
Both bush and pole ([[vine]]) varieties exist, the latter from one to four meters in height. The bush varieties mature earlier than the pole varieties. The pods are up to 15 cm long. The mature seeds are 1 to 3 cm long and oval to kidney shaped. In most varieties the seeds are quite flat, but in the "potato" varieties the shape approaches spherical.  White seeds are common, but black, red, orange and variously mottled seeds are also known. The immature seeds are uniformly green.
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Both bush and vine varieties exist, the latter from one to four meters in height. The bush varieties mature earlier than the pole varieties. The pods are up to 15 cm long. The mature seeds are 1 to 3 cm long and oval to kidney shaped. In most varieties the seeds are quite flat, but in the "potato" varieties the shape approaches spherical.  White seeds are common, but black, red, orange and variously mottled seeds are also known. The immature seeds are uniformly green.
 
 
 
 
  
 
===Runner beans===
 
===Runner beans===
 
[[Image:Runnerbean.jpg|thumb|Runner beans]]
 
[[Image:Runnerbean.jpg|thumb|Runner beans]]
The '''runner bean''' (''[[Phaseolus]] coccineus'', [[Fabaceae]]) is often called the '''scarlet runner bean''' since most varieties have red [[flower]]s and multicolored [[seeds]], though some have white flowers and white seeds. It is native to the mountains of [[Central America]].
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The '''runner bean''' (''Phaseolus coccineus'') is often called the '''scarlet runner bean''' since most varieties have red [[flower]]s and multicolored [[seeds]], though some have white flowers and white seeds. It is native to the mountains of [[Central America]].
  
The runner bean differs from the common bean in several respects: the [[cotyledon]]s stay in the ground during [[germination]], and the plant is a [[perennial]] with tuberous [[root]]s (though it is usually treated as an annual).
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The runner bean differs from the common bean in several respects: the [[Flowering plant|cotyledons]] stay in the ground during germination, and the plant is a perennial with tuberous [[root]]s (though it is usually treated as an annual).
  
The green pods are edible whole but in some varieties (the scarlet runner) tend to become fibrous early, and only the seeds within are eaten. The seeds can be used fresh or as dried beans. The starchy roots are still eaten by Central American Indians. The scarlet runner is widely grown for its attractive flowers by people who would never think of eating it.
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The green pods are edible whole, but in some varieties (the scarlet runner) tend to become fibrous early, and only the seeds within are eaten. The seeds can be used fresh or as dried beans. The starchy roots are still eaten by [[Central America]]n Indians. The scarlet runner is widely grown for its attractive flowers by people who would never think of eating it.
  
''Phaseolus coccineus subsp. darwinianus '' is a cultivated subspecies of ''P. coccineus'', it is commonly referred to as the Botil bean in [[Mexico]].
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''Phaseolus coccineus subsp. darwinianus'' is a cultivated subspecies of ''P. coccineus'', it is commonly referred to as the Botil bean in [[Mexico]].
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
*Berk, Z., 1992, "Technology of Production of Edible Flours and Protein Products from Soybeans", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation[http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0532e/t0532e00.htm#con]
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* Berk, Z. 1992. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0532e/t0532e00.htm#con ''Technology of Production of Edible Flours and Protein Products from Soybeans'']. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation. ''FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin'' No. 97. Retrieved August 18, 2006.
*Hernández Bermejo, J.E. & León, J., 1992, "Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective", Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)[http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E00.HTM]
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* Hernández Bermejo, J. E., and J. León. 1992. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E00.HTM ''Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective'']. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. ''FAO Plant Production and Protection Series'' no.26. ISBN 9251032173
*Muehlbauer, F.J. & Tullu, A, 1997, "Vicia faba L.", Purdue University[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/fababean.html]
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* Muehlbauer, F. J., and A. Tullu. 1997. [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/fababean.html ''Vicia faba L.'']. Purdue University. Retrieved August 18, 2006.
*North Carolina Soybean Producers Association (NCSPA), Website, [http://www.ncsoy.org/index.htm]
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* Watson, R. 2004. [http://www.mediterrasian.com/straight_talk_legumes.htm ''A Closer Look at Legumes'']. Mediterrasian.com, September 2004. Retrieved August 18, 2006.
*Walker, E. & L., 2005, "Beans (which includes a lot of vegetable species!)", Growingtaste.com[http://growingtaste.com/vegetables/bean.shtml]
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*Watson, R., 2004, "A Closer Look at Legumes", Mediterrasian.com[http://www.mediterrasian.com/straight_talk_legumes.htm]
 
 
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Revision as of 18:16, 3 April 2008

Bean is a common name for edible plant seeds or seed pods of several members of the Legume family (Fabaceae, formerly Leguminosae) or the various leguminous trees and shrubs that produce these seeds or pods.

The various species of bean plants include some of the very first plants cultivated by people in both the Old and the New Worlds. They have been and continue to be an important part of the human food supply, providing protein, vitamins, and other nutrients. In recent years, bean consumption has increased due mainly to economic progress in India, home to many vegetarians, and to their increased use in developed countries as people move to healthier diets (FAO 2005).

Beans, especially soybeans, which are now the largest bean crop grown, provide other products as well as food. They are also important for their role in fixing nitrogen, which replenishes the soil in which they are grown. They do this through a cooperative, mutually beneficial, symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Common beans on the plant

Name

"Bean" originally meant the seed of the broad bean, but was later broadened to include members of the genus Phaseolus such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus Vigna. The term is now applied in a general way to many other related plants, such as soybeans, peas, lentils, vetches, and lupines.

"Bean" can be used as a near synonym of "pulse," an edible legume, though the term "pulses" is usually reserved for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain. The term pulses usually excludes crops mainly used for oil extraction (like soybean and peanut), or those used exclusively for forage (like clover and alfalfa). Beans are often harvested when immature and are eaten as a vegetable, known as "green beans"; in this case they also are not called "pulses."

In English usage, beans sometimes also refer to seeds or other organs of non-legumes, for example coffee beans, castor beans, and cocoa beans (which resemble bean seeds), and vanilla beans (which resemble the pods).

Old World beans

In the Old World, beans were first cultivated in the Middle East, perhaps around 10,000 years ago. Along with their fellow legumes the pea (Pisum sativum), the chickpea (Cicer arietinum), and the bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), these cultivated plants included the broad bean (Vicia faba) and the lentil (Lens culinaris) (although it is not always called a bean). The soybean (Glycine max) was also cultivated very early in China. Some of the other Old World beans are the adzuki (or azuki) bean (Phaseolus angularis), the hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab), the winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), the guar bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), and the pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) (Walker 2005).

Broad beans

Vicia faba, known as the broad bean, fava bean, faba bean, horse bean, field bean or tic bean, is native to north Africa and southwest Asia, and is extensively cultivated elsewhere. Although usually classified in the same genus Vicia as the vetches, some botanists treat it in a separate monotypic genus as Faba sativa Moench.

Broad bean plant

The broad bean plant is upright, 0.5-1.7 meters (2-5 feet) tall, with stout stems with a square cross-section. The leaves are 10-25 cm (4-10 inches) long with 2-7 leaflets, and of a gray-green color. Unlike most other vetches, the leaves do not have tendrils for climbing over other vegetation. The flowers are 1-2.5 cm (0.4-1 inches) long, with five petals, the standard petal white, the wing petals white with a black spot, and the keel petals white.

The fruit is a broad leathery pod, green maturing blackish-brown, with a densely downy surface. In the wild species, the pods are 5-10 cm (2-4 inches) long and 1 cm (0.4 inches) diameter, but many modern cultivars developed for food use have pods 15-25 cm long (6-10 inches) and 2-3 cm (about an inch) thick. Each pod contains 3-8 seeds; round to oval and 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4 inches) in diameter in the wild plant, usually flattened and up to 20-25 mm (0.8-1.2 inches) long, 15 mm (0.6 inches) broad, and 5-10 mm (0.2-0.4 inches) thick in food cultivars.

Broad beans require a cool season to develop best and in some places are sown in fall as a winter crop and harvested in spring.

Broad beans were an important crop throughout ancient and Medieval times. In ancient Rome, they began to be cultivated in order to feed livestock as well as for humans. In recent times, they have become less important as a human food and are mainly grown for animal feed. China is the largest grower today, producing about 60 percent of the world's supply. Europe and North Africa are also centers of broad bean cultivation (Muehlbauer 1997).

Lentils

File:180px-Illustration Lens culinaris0.jpg
Illustration of the lentil plant, 1885

The lentil (Lens culinaris) is a brushy annual plant, about 40 cm (16 inches) tall. Its seeds are lens-shaped (from which comes the word "lens"). They grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each. With 25 percent protein, it is the vegetable with the highest level of protein other than soybeans, and because of this it is a very important part of the diet in many parts of the world, and especially South Asia, which has a large vegetarian population.

A variety of lentils exist with colors that range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown and black. The colors of the seeds when removed from the pods also vary, and there are large and small varieties. They are sold in many forms, with or without the pods, whole or split.

In South Asia, lentils are known as dal, as are most sorts of dried legumes. The dishes made predominantly of lentils are also known as dal.

Lentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the world. About half of the worldwide production of lentils is from India, most of which is consumed in the domestic market.

A famous variety of small green lentils known for their earthy flavor is grown in Le Puy, France. These Le Puy lentils (lentilles du Puy) were the first dry vegetable protected by the French Appelation d'Origine Controlée designation.

Soybeans

The Soybean (U.S.) or Soya bean (UK) (Glycine max) is native to eastern Asia. It is an annual plant, which may vary in growth habit and height. It may grow prostrate, not growing above 20 cm (7.8 inches) or be stiffly erect, growing to 2 meters (6.5 feet). The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray pubescence. The leaves are trifoliate (sometimes with 5 leaflets), the leaflets 6-15 cm (2-6 inches) long and 2-7 cm (1-3 inches) broad; they fall before the seeds are mature. The small, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are either white or purple; the fruit is a hairy pod that grow in clusters of 3-5, with each pod 3-8 cm (1-3 inches) long and usually containing 2-4 (rarely more) seeds 5-11 mm (0.2-0.5 inches) in diameter.

Like corn and some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty.

Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.

Soybeans have been a crucial crop in eastern Asia since long before written records, and they are still a major crop in China, Korea, and Japan today. Soybeans were first introduced to Europe in the early 1700s and the United States in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910.

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20°C and over 40°C (104°F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content.

Although soybeans are native to southeast Asia, 45 percent of the world's soybean area, and 55 percent of production, is in the United States. The U.S. produced 75 million metric tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are Brazil, Argentina, China, and India.

Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu and soymilk producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity.

Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38-45 percent) protein content as well as its high (20 percent) oil content. Soybeans are the leading agricultural export of the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.

Soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with salt, under the Japanese name edamame. Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in Hawai'i, where, as in China, Japan, and Korea the bean and products made from the bean (miso, natto, tofu, douchi, doenjang, ganjang and others) are a popular part of the diet.

The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or soya) include soy meal, soy flour, "soy milk", tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of soy sauce (or shoyu in Japanese from which the English word "soy" is said to come).

Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.

Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

Infant formulas based on soy are used by lactose-intolerant babies, and for babies that are allergic to human milk proteins and cow milk proteins. The formulas are sold in powdered, ready to feed, or concentrated liquid forms.

It has been recommended internationally by pediatric associations that soy formulas not be used as the primary or sole source of nutrition for infants due to the high risk of several deficiencies, including calcium and zinc.

Many traditional dairy products have been imitated using processed soybeans, and imitation products such as "soy milk," "soy yogurt," and "soy cream cheese" are readily available in most supermarkets. These imitation products are derived from extensive processing to produce a texture and appearance similar to the real dairy-based ones. Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of calcium, since the high calcium content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the pulp. Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well.

Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and biodiesel. Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of vodka.

Henry Ford promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest lead to 2 bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream, and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping. The Ford development of so called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenolformaldehyde plastics.

Today, very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from soy pulp, a byproduct of tofu production.

New World beans

Beans were cultivated early in the New World, both in South and North America. The most important bean species from the New World is the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Other New World beans include Lima beans (Phaseolus limensis), runner beans (Phaseolus coccineus), tepary beans (Phaseolus acutifolius, var. latifolius), and butter beans (Phaseolus lunatus).

Common beans

Kidney beans

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) was domesticated independently in ancient Mesoamerica and the Andes, and is now grown worldwide for its edible bean, popular both dry and as a green bean. The leaf is occasionally used as a leaf vegetable, and the straw is used for fodder. Along with squash and maize, beans were the "three sisters" that provided the foundation of Native American agriculture.

The common bean is a highly variable species. Bush varieties form erect bushes 20-60 cm (8-24 inches) tall, while pole or running varieties form vines 2-3 meters (6-10 feet) long. All varieties bear alternate, green or purple leaves, divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6-15 cm (2.5-6 inches) long and 3-11 cm (1-4 inches) wide. The white, pink, or purple flowers are about 1 cm (0.4 inches) long, and give way to pods 8-20 cm (3-8 inches) long, 1-1.5 cm (about 0.5 inches) wide, green, yellow, black or purple in color, each containing 4-6 beans. The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5 cm (0.6 inches) long, range widely in color, and are often mottled in two or more colors. There are many cultivated varieties of common beans including navy beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, black beans, and many others.

Green beans

Before they are eaten, the raw bean seeds should be boiled for at least ten minutes to degrade a toxic compound—the lectin phytohaemagglutinin—found in the bean, which would otherwise cause severe gastric upset. This compound is present in many varieties (and in some other species of bean), but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. Although in the case of dry beans, the ten minutes required to degrade the toxin is much shorter than the hours required to fully cook the beans themselves, outbreaks of poisoning have been associated with the use of slow cookers whose low cooking temperatures may be unable to degrade the toxin. Sprouts of beans high in haemaglutins should not be eaten. Red kidney beans, especially, should not be sprouted.

The common bean is high in starch, protein, and dietary fiber, and an excellent source of iron, potassium, selenium, molybdenum, thiamine, vitamin B6, and folic acid.

Lima beans

Lima beans

The Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) is grown as a vegetable for its mature and immature beans. It is also known as Haba bean, Burma bean, Guffin bean, Hibbert bean, Java bean, Sieva bean, Rangood bean, Madagascar bean, Paiga, Paigya, Prolific bean, Civet bean and Sugar bean

The lima bean is of Andean and Mesoamerican origin. Two separate domestication events are believed to have occurred. The first, taking place in the Andes around 6500 B.C.E., produced a large-seeded variety (Lima type), while the second, taking place most likely in Mesoamerica around 800 C.E., produced a small-seeded variety (Sieva type). By around 1300 C.E., cultivation spread to North America.

The small-seeded wild form (Sieva type) is found distributed from Mexico to Argentina, generally below 1600 meters above sea level, while the large-seeded wild form (Lima type) is found distributed in Ecuador and the north of Peru, between 320 and 2030 meters above sea level.

Both bush and vine varieties exist, the latter from one to four meters in height. The bush varieties mature earlier than the pole varieties. The pods are up to 15 cm long. The mature seeds are 1 to 3 cm long and oval to kidney shaped. In most varieties the seeds are quite flat, but in the "potato" varieties the shape approaches spherical. White seeds are common, but black, red, orange and variously mottled seeds are also known. The immature seeds are uniformly green.

Runner beans

Runner beans

The runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) is often called the scarlet runner bean since most varieties have red flowers and multicolored seeds, though some have white flowers and white seeds. It is native to the mountains of Central America.

The runner bean differs from the common bean in several respects: the cotyledons stay in the ground during germination, and the plant is a perennial with tuberous roots (though it is usually treated as an annual).

The green pods are edible whole, but in some varieties (the scarlet runner) tend to become fibrous early, and only the seeds within are eaten. The seeds can be used fresh or as dried beans. The starchy roots are still eaten by Central American Indians. The scarlet runner is widely grown for its attractive flowers by people who would never think of eating it.

Phaseolus coccineus subsp. darwinianus is a cultivated subspecies of P. coccineus, it is commonly referred to as the Botil bean in Mexico.

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