Difference between revisions of "Barracuda" - New World Encyclopedia

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| image = Barracuda with prey.jpg
 
| image = Barracuda with prey.jpg
 
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| image_caption = [[Great barracuda]], ''Sphyraena barracuda'', with prey
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| image_caption = Great barracuda, ''Sphyraena barracuda'', with prey
 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
 
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| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
 
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| subdivision = See text.
 
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The '''barracuda''' is a [[ray-finned fish]] notable for its large size (up to 6 ft or more in length and up to a foot in width<ref>Humann, Paul, and Ned DeLoach. ''Reef fish identification: Florida, Caribbean, Bahamas''. Reef set, v. 1. Jacksonville, Fla: New World Publications 2002. ISBN 9781878348302</ref>) and fearsome appearance. The body is long, fairly compressed, and covered with small, smooth [[scale (zoology)|scales]]. It is found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide. Its genus, '''''Sphyraena''''', is the only genus in the family '''Sphyraenidae'''
+
'''Barracuda''' is the common name for the various marine, ray-finned fish comprising the family '''Sphyraenidae''' of the order Perciformes, characterized by a long, fairly compressed, elongated body covered with small, smooth [[scale (zoology)|scales]] and with a large mouth with strong, fang-like teeth. They are notable for their long size, reaching up to six feet (two meters) or more in length. There is only one genus of barracudas, '''''Sphraena''''', which has about 20 species (Nelson 1994).
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{{toc}}
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Despite an unfavorable reputation as dangerous to humans who are [[scuba diving]], snorkeling, or swimming in their waters, unprovoked attacks by barracudas on humans are rare. Rather, barracudas generally add value to human life as food and game fish and for the wonder they add to nature. [[Ecology|Ecologically]], they are integral to many marine [[food chain]]s, serving as the top predator in some tropical and subtropical waters and helping to maintain the balance of nature.
  
== Appearance and physical description ==
+
== Description ==
[[Image:barracuda laban.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Great barracuda hovering in the current at the Paradise Reef, [[Cozumel]], [[Mexico]].]]
+
[[Image:barracuda laban.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Great barracuda hovering in the current at the Paradise Reef, Cozumel, [[Mexico]].]]
Barracudas are elongated [[fish]] with powerful [[jaw]]s. The lower jaw of the large [[mouth]] juts out beyond the upper. Barracudas possess strong, [[fang]]-like teeth. These are unequal in size and set in [[tooth socket|sockets]] in the jaws on the roof of the mouth. The head is quite large and is pointed and it is [[pike (fish)|pike]]-like in appearance. The gill-covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales. The two [[dorsal fin]]s are widely separated, with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and nine soft rays. The second dorsal fin equals the anal fin in size and is situated more or less above it. The [[lateral line]] is prominent and extends straight from head to tail. The spinous dorsal fin is placed above the pelvics. The hind end of the [[caudal fin]] is forked or [[concave]]. It is set at the end of a stout [[peduncle]]. The [[pectoral fins]] are placed low down on the sides. The barracuda [[swim bladder]] is large.
 
  
In general, the barracuda's coloration is dark green or grey above chalky-white below. This varies somewhat. Sometimes there is a row of darker cross-bars or black spots on each side. The fins may be yellowish or dusky. Barracudas only live in oceans.
+
Barracudas (family Sphyraenidae and genus ''Sphyraena'') are found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide.  
  
== Order and suborder ==
+
Barracudas have an elongate body and large mouth, with the lower jaw jutting out beyond the upper (Nelson 1994). Their strong, fang-like teeth are unequal in size and set in sockets in the jaws on the roof of the mouth. The head is quite large, pointed, and [[pike (fish)|pike]]-like in appearance. The gill-covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales. The two [[dorsal fin]]s are widely separated, with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and nine soft rays (Nelson 1994). The second dorsal fin and anal fin are the same size and are situated on the top and bottom of the barracuda, equidistant from the tail. The [[lateral line]] is prominent and extends straight from head to tail. The spinous dorsal fin is placed above the pelvics. The hind end of the caudal fin is forked or concave. It is set at the end of a stout peduncle. The pectoral fins are placed low down on the sides. The barracuda also has a large swim bladder.
Barracudas belong to the great order of [[Perch]]-like fish, [[Perciformes]]. Along with the smaller grey mullets and sand smelts or atherines, barracudas form the suborder known as mugiloids. Members of this group are distinguished from the Percoids by the rearward position of the pelvic fins, which are located well to the rear of the pectoral fins.
+
 
 +
Nelson (1994) reports that the maximum length of barracudas is normally to 1.8 meters (almost 6 feet), but are said to reach somewhat longer lengths. Only some [[species]] of barracuda grow to a large size. The species that do are the European barracuda, barracouta or spet ''(S. sphyraena),'' found in the Mediterranean and eastern [[Atlantic]]; the great barracuda, picuda, or becuna ''(S. picuda),'' ranging on the Atlantic coast of tropical America from [[Florida]] to [[Brazil]] and reaching the [[Bermudas]]; the [[California]] barracuda ''(S. argentea),'' extending from Puget Sound southwards to Cabo San Lucas; the Indian barracuda ''(S. jello)'' and the black-finned or Commerson's barracuda ''(S. commersoni),'' both from the seas of India and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.
 +
 
 +
Barracudas typically have coloration that is dark green or gray above a chalky-white underbelly. Sometimes there is a row of darker cross-bars or black spots on each side. The fins may be yellowish or dusky.  
  
 
==Behavior==
 
==Behavior==
[[Image:Diver in school of barracudas.jpg|thumb|Scuba diver inside a school of [[sawtooth barracuda]]s in [[Koh Tao]], [[Thailand]].]]
 
[[Image:7373 aquaimages.jpg|thumb|Closeup of a Great Barracuda]]
 
[[Image:3875 aquaimages.jpg|thumb|Great Barracuda and Jacks, [[Saba]], Netherlands Antilles]]
 
Barracudas occur both singly and in [[swarm|school]]s around reefs, but also appear in open seas. They are voracious [[predator]]s and hunt using a classic example of lie-in-wait or ambush. They rely on surprise and short bursts of speed (up to 27mph (43 km/h)<ref>Reefquest Center for Shark Research. [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/r_haulin'_bass.htm What's the Speediest Marine Creature?] - Retrieved September 18, 2007</ref>) to overrun their prey, sacrificing maneuverability.
 
  
The larger barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits. Young and half-grown fish frequently congregate in shoals. Their food is composed of fish of all types. Large barracudas, when gorged, may attempt to herd a shoal of prey fish in shallow water, where they guard over them until they are ready for another meal.  
+
Barracudas occur both singly and in schools around reefs, but also appear in open seas.  Swimming in schools, or individually, they are voracious predators and hunt using a classic example of lie-in-wait or ambush. They rely on surprise and short bursts of speed (up to 27 mph or 43 km/h) to overrun their prey, sacrificing maneuverability (RQCSR 2007). They also exhibit some scavenger-like feeding habits.
 +
 
 +
The larger barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits. Young and half-grown fish frequently congregate in shoals. Their food is composed of [[fish]] of all types. Large barracudas, when gorged, may attempt to herd a shoal of prey fish in shallow water, where they guard over them until they are ready for another meal.
 +
 
 +
== Barracudas and humans ==
 +
[[Image:Diver in school of barracudas.jpg|thumb|250px|Scuba diver inside a school of sawtooth barracudas in Koh Tao, [[Thailand]].]]
 +
Like [[shark]]s, barracudas have long had a bad reputation as being dangerous to humans. However, unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare and millions of [[Scuba diving|scuba diver]]s, snorkelers, and swimmers spend time with them in the water without any incidents. Barracudas sometimes do follow snorkelers and scuba divers across a reef, which can make one feel uncomfortable, but they are harmless unless provoked. Because barracudas have a scavenger-like tendency, it has been theorized that barracudas tend to follow snorkelers because they believe that the snorkelers might be large predators and if they were to capture prey it would be easy for the barracudas to scavenge whatever may be left behind.
 +
 
 +
Being formidable hunters, they should be respected, as barracudas are perfectly capable of defending themselves against humans that harass them. Handfeeding or trying to touch them is strongly discouraged. Spearfishing around barracudas can also be quite dangerous, as they are strongly attracted by the wounded fish.
  
=== Barracudas and humans ===
+
There have been isolated cases where barracudas did bite a human, but these incidents are rare and are believed to be caused by bad visibility. Barracudas will stop after the first bite as humans are not their normal food source.
Like [[shark]]s, barracudas have long had a bad reputation as being dangerous to humans.  However, unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare and millions of [[Scuba diving|scuba diver]]s, [[snorkeling|snorkelers]] and swimmers  spend time with them in the water without any incidents. Barracudas sometimes do follow snorkelers and scuba divers across a reef, which can make one feel uncomfortable, but they are harmless unless provoked.  Because barracudas have a scavenger-like tendency, it has been theorized that barracudas tend to follow snorkelers because they believe that the snorkelers might be large predators and if they were to capture prey it would be easy for the barracudas to scavenge whatever may be left behind.
 
  
Being formidable hunters, they should be respected, as barracudas are perfectly capable of defending themselves against humans that harass them. Handfeeding or trying to touch them is strongly discouraged. [[Spearfishing]] around barracudas can also be quite dangerous, as they are strongly attracted by the wounded fish.
+
Barracudas are prize fish, and can be caught either fly or sea fishing. They are extremely powerful, and require tough and strong rods.
  
There have been isolated cases where barracudas did bite a human, but these incidents are rare and are believed to be caused by bad visibility. Barracudas will stop after the first bite as humans are not their normal food source.
+
=== As food ===
 +
Barracudas are caught as food and game fish. They are most often eaten as fillet or steak and have a strong taste like [[tuna]] or [[salmon]]. Larger species, like the great barracuda, have in some areas been implicated in cases of ciguatera food poisoning (USFDA 2007).
  
== As food ==
+
In southern [[Nigeria]], [[West Africa]] they are smoked and used in the preparation of different soups. Barracuda meat is smoked is because when cooked fresh, the fish is quite soft and disintegrates in the soup.
They are caught as food and game fish. They are most often eaten as fillet or steak and have a strong taste like [[tuna]] or [[salmon]]. Larger species, like the great barracuda, have in some areas been implicated in cases of [[ciguatera]] food poisoning<ref>U.S. Food & Drug Administration. [http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/RFE2gb.html Hazard, Market, Geographic and Nomenclature Information for Great Barracuda.] - Retrieved September 18, 2007</ref>.
 
In southern [[Nigeria]], [[West Africa]] they are [[smoked]] and used in the preparation of different [[soup]]s. The reason for smoking is because when cooked fresh, the fish is quite soft and disintegrates in the soup.
 
  
 
==Species==
 
==Species==
[[Image:School of barracuda.JPG|right|thumb|A school of [[sawtooth barracuda]]s, ''Sphyraena putnamae'' in [[Bora Bora]].]]
+
[[Image:3875 aquaimages.jpg|thumb|Great Barracuda and Jacks, Saba, Netherlands Antilles]]
[[Image:Sphyraena borealis.jpg|thumb|[[Northern sennet]], ''Sphyraena borealis'']]
+
[[Image:School of barracuda.JPG|right|thumb|A school of sawtooth barracudas, ''Sphyraena putnamae'' in Bora Bora.]]
[[Image:Sphyraena flavicauda.JPG|right|thumb|A school of [[yellowtail barracuda]]s, ''Sphyraena flavicauda'' off [[Dayang]], [[Malaysia]].]]
+
[[Image:Sphyraena borealis.jpg|thumb|Northern sennet, ''Sphyraena borealis'']]
There are 26 species:
+
[[Image:Sphyraena flavicauda.JPG|right|thumb|A school of yellowtail barracudas, ''Sphyraena flavicauda'' off Dayang, [[Malaysia]].]]
 +
 
 +
There are 26 known species:
 
* [[Sharpfin barracuda]], ''[[Sphyraena acutipinnis]]'' <small>Day, 1876</small>.
 
* [[Sharpfin barracuda]], ''[[Sphyraena acutipinnis]]'' <small>Day, 1876</small>.
 
* [[Guinean barracuda]], ''[[Sphyraena afra]]'' <small>Peters, 1844</small>.
 
* [[Guinean barracuda]], ''[[Sphyraena afra]]'' <small>Peters, 1844</small>.
Line 79: Line 87:
 
* ''[[Sphyraena waitii]]'' <small>[[William Ogilby|Ogilby]], 1908</small>.
 
* ''[[Sphyraena waitii]]'' <small>[[William Ogilby|Ogilby]], 1908</small>.
  
Only some species of barracuda grow to a large size. The species which do are the European barracuda, barracouta or spet ''(S. sphyraena)'', found in the Mediterranean and eastern [[Atlantic]]; the great barracuda, picuda or becuna ''(S. picuda)'', ranging on the Atlantic coast of tropical America from [[Florida]] to [[Brazil]] and reaching the [[Bermudas]];
+
==References==
the [[California]] Barracuda ''(S. argentea)'', extending from [[Puget Sound]] southwards to [[Cabo San Lucas]]; the Indian barracuda ''(S. jello)'' and the black-finned or Commerson's barracuda ''(S. commersoni)'', both from the seas of India and the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[Archipelago]].
+
 
 +
* Agbayani, E. 2004. [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/FamilySummary.cfm?Family=Sphyraenidae Sphyraenidae]. ''FishBase'' (Eds. R. Froese and D. Pauly). Retrieved December 2, 2007.
  
==Notes==
+
*Humann, P., and N. DeLoach. 2002. ''Reef Fish Identification: Florida, Caribbean, Bahamas.'' Jacksonville, FL: New World Publications. ISBN 1878348302.
<references/>
 
  
==References==
+
* Nelson, J. S. 1994. ''Fishes of the World,'' 3rd edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471547131.
* {{FishBase family | family = Sphyraenidae | month = January | year = 2006}}
+
 
* Norman JR, F.L.S. and Fraser, FC, D.Sc., F.L.S.''Field Book of Giant Fishes'' G.P. Putnam's Sons New York 1949. OCLC 1488938
+
* Norman, J. R., and F. C. Fraser. 1949. ''Field Book of Giant Fishes.'' New York: G.P. Putnam.
* Rochefort Charles D. (1605-1683) ''Histoire naturelle et morale des illes Antilles de l'Amerique''. OCLC 11724689
+
 
* Sloane Hans Sir (1660-1753) ''A voyage to the islands of [[Madera]], [[Barbados]], Nieves, S. Christophers and [[Jamaica]]'' [[London]], Printed by BM for the author, 1707-1725. OCLC 3683232
+
* ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research (RQCSR). 2007. [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/r_haulin'_bass.htm What's the speediest marine creature.] ''Biology of Sharks and Rays.'' Retrieved October 26, 2007.
 +
 
 +
* Rochefort, C. de. 1681. Histoire naturelle et morale des iles Antilles de l'Amérique enrichie d'un grand nombre de belles figures en taille douce … avec un vocabulaire caraïbe. Rotterdam: R. Leers.
 +
 
 +
* Sloane, H., M. van der Gucht, and J. Savage. 1707. ''A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica, With the Natural History … of the Last of Those Islands to Which is Prefix'd an Introduction, Wherein is an Account of the Inhabitants, Air, Waters, Diseases, Trade, &c. … ; Illustrated With the Figures of the Things Describ'd''. London: Printed by B. M. for the author.
 +
 
 +
*U.S. Food & Drug Administration (USFDA). 2007. [http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/RFE2gb.html Harzard, market, geographic and nomenclature information for great barracuda (barracuda; ''Sphyraena barracuda'').] ''Seafood Products Research Center - Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition - Regulatory Fish Encyclopedia.'' Retrieved October 26, 2007.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
* [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/GreatBarracuda/GreatBarracuda.html Great Barracuda page] on website of the Florida Museum of National History. - Retrieved September 18, 2007
+
All links retrieved December 31, 2021.
* The [http://www.uga.edu/cuda/ Great Barracuda Pages]. - Retrieved September 18, 2007
+
* Sphyraenidae entry on [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Sphyraenidae.html Animal Diversity Web].  
* Sphyraenidae entry on [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Sphyraenidae.html Animal Diversity Web]. - Retrieved September 18, 2007
 
 
 
  
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[[Category:Life sciences]]
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[[Category:Animals]]
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[[Category:Fishes]]
  
 
{{credit|157974790}}
 
{{credit|157974790}}

Revision as of 02:41, 1 January 2022


Barracuda
Great barracuda, Sphyraena barracuda, with prey
Great barracuda, Sphyraena barracuda, with prey
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Perciformes
Family: Sphyraenidae
Genus: Sphyraena
Klein, 1778
Species

See text.

Barracuda is the common name for the various marine, ray-finned fish comprising the family Sphyraenidae of the order Perciformes, characterized by a long, fairly compressed, elongated body covered with small, smooth scales and with a large mouth with strong, fang-like teeth. They are notable for their long size, reaching up to six feet (two meters) or more in length. There is only one genus of barracudas, Sphraena, which has about 20 species (Nelson 1994).

Despite an unfavorable reputation as dangerous to humans who are scuba diving, snorkeling, or swimming in their waters, unprovoked attacks by barracudas on humans are rare. Rather, barracudas generally add value to human life as food and game fish and for the wonder they add to nature. Ecologically, they are integral to many marine food chains, serving as the top predator in some tropical and subtropical waters and helping to maintain the balance of nature.

Description

Great barracuda hovering in the current at the Paradise Reef, Cozumel, Mexico.

Barracudas (family Sphyraenidae and genus Sphyraena) are found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide.

Barracudas have an elongate body and large mouth, with the lower jaw jutting out beyond the upper (Nelson 1994). Their strong, fang-like teeth are unequal in size and set in sockets in the jaws on the roof of the mouth. The head is quite large, pointed, and pike-like in appearance. The gill-covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales. The two dorsal fins are widely separated, with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and nine soft rays (Nelson 1994). The second dorsal fin and anal fin are the same size and are situated on the top and bottom of the barracuda, equidistant from the tail. The lateral line is prominent and extends straight from head to tail. The spinous dorsal fin is placed above the pelvics. The hind end of the caudal fin is forked or concave. It is set at the end of a stout peduncle. The pectoral fins are placed low down on the sides. The barracuda also has a large swim bladder.

Nelson (1994) reports that the maximum length of barracudas is normally to 1.8 meters (almost 6 feet), but are said to reach somewhat longer lengths. Only some species of barracuda grow to a large size. The species that do are the European barracuda, barracouta or spet (S. sphyraena), found in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic; the great barracuda, picuda, or becuna (S. picuda), ranging on the Atlantic coast of tropical America from Florida to Brazil and reaching the Bermudas; the California barracuda (S. argentea), extending from Puget Sound southwards to Cabo San Lucas; the Indian barracuda (S. jello) and the black-finned or Commerson's barracuda (S. commersoni), both from the seas of India and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.

Barracudas typically have coloration that is dark green or gray above a chalky-white underbelly. Sometimes there is a row of darker cross-bars or black spots on each side. The fins may be yellowish or dusky.

Behavior

Barracudas occur both singly and in schools around reefs, but also appear in open seas. Swimming in schools, or individually, they are voracious predators and hunt using a classic example of lie-in-wait or ambush. They rely on surprise and short bursts of speed (up to 27 mph or 43 km/h) to overrun their prey, sacrificing maneuverability (RQCSR 2007). They also exhibit some scavenger-like feeding habits.

The larger barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits. Young and half-grown fish frequently congregate in shoals. Their food is composed of fish of all types. Large barracudas, when gorged, may attempt to herd a shoal of prey fish in shallow water, where they guard over them until they are ready for another meal.

Barracudas and humans

Scuba diver inside a school of sawtooth barracudas in Koh Tao, Thailand.

Like sharks, barracudas have long had a bad reputation as being dangerous to humans. However, unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare and millions of scuba divers, snorkelers, and swimmers spend time with them in the water without any incidents. Barracudas sometimes do follow snorkelers and scuba divers across a reef, which can make one feel uncomfortable, but they are harmless unless provoked. Because barracudas have a scavenger-like tendency, it has been theorized that barracudas tend to follow snorkelers because they believe that the snorkelers might be large predators and if they were to capture prey it would be easy for the barracudas to scavenge whatever may be left behind.

Being formidable hunters, they should be respected, as barracudas are perfectly capable of defending themselves against humans that harass them. Handfeeding or trying to touch them is strongly discouraged. Spearfishing around barracudas can also be quite dangerous, as they are strongly attracted by the wounded fish.

There have been isolated cases where barracudas did bite a human, but these incidents are rare and are believed to be caused by bad visibility. Barracudas will stop after the first bite as humans are not their normal food source.

Barracudas are prize fish, and can be caught either fly or sea fishing. They are extremely powerful, and require tough and strong rods.

As food

Barracudas are caught as food and game fish. They are most often eaten as fillet or steak and have a strong taste like tuna or salmon. Larger species, like the great barracuda, have in some areas been implicated in cases of ciguatera food poisoning (USFDA 2007).

In southern Nigeria, West Africa they are smoked and used in the preparation of different soups. Barracuda meat is smoked is because when cooked fresh, the fish is quite soft and disintegrates in the soup.

Species

Great Barracuda and Jacks, Saba, Netherlands Antilles
A school of sawtooth barracudas, Sphyraena putnamae in Bora Bora.
Northern sennet, Sphyraena borealis
A school of yellowtail barracudas, Sphyraena flavicauda off Dayang, Malaysia.

There are 26 known species:

  • Sharpfin barracuda, Sphyraena acutipinnis Day, 1876.
  • Guinean barracuda, Sphyraena afra Peters, 1844.
  • Pacific barracuda, Sphyraena argentea Girard, 1854.
  • Great barracuda, Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum, 1792).
  • Northern sennet, Sphyraena borealis DeKay, 1842.
  • Yellowstripe barracuda, Sphyraena chrysotaenia Klunzinger, 1884.
  • Mexican barracuda, Sphyraena ensis Jordan & Gilbert, 1882.
  • Yellowtail barracuda, Sphyraena flavicauda Rüppell, 1838.
  • Bigeye barracuda, Sphyraena forsteri Cuvier, 1829.
  • Guachanche barracuda, Sphyraena guachancho Cuvier, 1829.
  • Heller's barracuda, Sphyraena helleri Jenkins, 1901.
  • Sphyraena iburiensis Doiuchi & Nakabo, 2005.
  • Pelican barracuda, Sphyraena idiastes Heller & Snodgrass, 1903.
  • Japanese barracuda, Sphyraena japonica Cuvier, 1829.
  • Pickhandle barracuda, Sphyraena jello Cuvier, 1829.
  • Lucas barracuda, Sphyraena lucasana Gill, 1863.
  • Australian barracuda, Sphyraena novaehollandiae Günther, 1860.
  • Obtuse barracuda, Sphyraena obtusata Cuvier, 1829.
  • Southern sennet, Sphyraena picudilla Poey, 1860.
  • Red barracuda, Sphyraena pinguis Günther, 1874.
  • Sawtooth barracuda, Sphyraena putnamae Jordan & Seale, 1905.
  • Blackfin barracuda, Sphyraena qenie Klunzinger, 1870.
  • European barracuda, Sphyraena sphyraena (Linnaeus, 1758).
  • Sphyraena tome Fowler, 1903.
  • Yellowmouth barracuda, Sphyraena viridensis Cuvier, 1829.
  • Sphyraena waitii Ogilby, 1908.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Agbayani, E. 2004. Sphyraenidae. FishBase (Eds. R. Froese and D. Pauly). Retrieved December 2, 2007.
  • Humann, P., and N. DeLoach. 2002. Reef Fish Identification: Florida, Caribbean, Bahamas. Jacksonville, FL: New World Publications. ISBN 1878348302.
  • Nelson, J. S. 1994. Fishes of the World, 3rd edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471547131.
  • Norman, J. R., and F. C. Fraser. 1949. Field Book of Giant Fishes. New York: G.P. Putnam.
  • Rochefort, C. de. 1681. Histoire naturelle et morale des iles Antilles de l'Amérique enrichie d'un grand nombre de belles figures en taille douce … avec un vocabulaire caraïbe. Rotterdam: R. Leers.
  • Sloane, H., M. van der Gucht, and J. Savage. 1707. A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica, With the Natural History … of the Last of Those Islands to Which is Prefix'd an Introduction, Wherein is an Account of the Inhabitants, Air, Waters, Diseases, Trade, &c. … ; Illustrated With the Figures of the Things Describ'd. London: Printed by B. M. for the author.

External links

All links retrieved December 31, 2021.

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