Difference between revisions of "Attila the Hun" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(New page: {{redirect|Attila}} {{Infobox_Monarch | name = Attila the Hun | title = King of Huns | image = 250px | reign ...)
 
(40 intermediate revisions by 10 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{redirect|Attila}}
+
{{Paid}}{{approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{copyedited}}
 +
 
 
{{Infobox_Monarch
 
{{Infobox_Monarch
 
| name      = Attila the Hun
 
| name      = Attila the Hun
Line 21: Line 22:
 
| place of burial=
 
| place of burial=
 
|}}
 
|}}
−
'''Attila''' (c. 406 - [[453]]) was the monarch of the [[Hun]] people from [[434]] until his death. His empire stretched from the [[Netherlands]] to the [[Ural river]] and from the [[Danube|Danube River]] to the [[Baltic Sea]] (see map below). During his rule he was one of the most fearsome of the Western and Eastern [[Roman Empire]]s' enemies: he invaded the [[Balkans]] twice, besieging [[Constantinople]] on the second invasion; he marched through [[Gaul]] (modern day [[France]]) as far as [[Orleans]] before being defeated at the [[Battle of Chalons]]; and he drove the western emperor [[Valentinian III]] from his [[capital]] at [[Ravenna]] in 452.
+
'''Attila''' (c. 406 - 453 C.E.) was the monarch of the [[Huns|Hun]] people from 434 C.E. until his death. His empire stretched from the [[Netherlands]] to the [[Ural River]] and from the [[Danube River]] to the [[Baltic Sea]]. During his rule, he was one of the most fearsome of the [[Roman Empire]]'s enemies: he invaded the Balkans twice, besieging [[Constantinople]] on the second invasion; he marched through Gaul (modern day [[France]]) as far as [[Orleans]] before being defeated at the Battle of Chalons; and he drove the western emperor [[Valentinian III]] from his capital at Ravenna in 452.
−
 
+
{{toc}}
−
Though his empire died with him, he has become a legendary figure in the [[history of Europe]]. In much of [[Western Europe]], he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. In contrast, some histories lionize him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three [[Norse saga]]s.
+
Although some histories lionize Attila as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three [[Norse]] sagas, in much of Western Europe he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. Though his empire died with him, he became a legendary figure in Western history and tradition, being known as the grim "Scourge of God."
  
 
==Background==
 
==Background==
−
{{main|Huns}}
+
The origin of the European [[Huns]] has been the subject of debate for centuries. However, there is general agreement that they were a confederation of [[Eurasian]] and European tribes that appeared in Europe in the fourth century. The Huns achieved military superiority over their rivals—most of them highly cultured and civilized—by their readiness for combat, unusual mobility and horsemanship, and weapons such as the Hun [[bow]].
−
The origin of the European Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries, however it can be said with general agreement that they were a confederation of Eurasian and European tribes. They appeared or began to form in Europe in the 4th century. They achieved military superiority over their rivals (most of them highly cultured and civilized) by their readiness for combat, unusual mobility, and weapons like the [[Hun bow]].
 
  
−
Nothing is known about Attila's youth except for the day he was born. He first appears in the historical record when he becomes joint king of the Huns with his brother [[Bleda]]. His belief system was unknown, but he demonstrated little, if any, concern for local religions or Christianity.
+
Nothing is known about Attila's youth except for the day he was born. He first appeared in the historical record when he became joint king of the Huns with his brother, [[Bleda]]. While his belief system was unknown, Attila seems to have had little interest either in [[Christianity]] or other religions.
  
 
==Shared kingship==
 
==Shared kingship==
−
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The [[Hunnic Empire]] stretched from the [[steppe]]s of Central Asia into modern [[Germany]], and from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea]]
+
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|250px|left|The Hunnic Empire stretched from the steppes of Central Asia into modern Germany, and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea.]]
−
By 432 the Huns were united under [[Rugila]]. His death in 434 left his [[nephew]]s Attila and Bleda (the sons of his brother [[Mundzuk]]) in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were [[bargain]]ing with Byzantine emperor [[Theodosius II]]'s envoys over the return of several [[renegade]] tribes who had taken refuge within the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The following year Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day [[Pozarevac|Požarevac]]) and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful [[treaty]]: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid against the [[Vandals]]), but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 114.5 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight ''[[solidus (coin)|solidi]]'' for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and returned to their home, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the [[walls of Constantinople]], building the city's first [[sea wall]], and to build up his border defenses along the [[Danube]].
+
By 432 C.E., the Huns were united under [[Rugila]], whose death in 434 left his nephews Attila and [[Bleda]] (the sons of Rugila's brother Mundzuk) in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were bargaining with Byzantine emperor [[Theodosius II]]'s envoys over the return of several renegade tribes who had taken refuge within the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The following year Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present day Požarevac) and, seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful treaty. The Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid to Rome against the [[Vandals]]), but also to double their previous tribute to the Huns of 350 Roman pounds of gold. They also opened their markets to Hunnish traders, and paid a ransom of eight ''solidi'' for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The royal brothers, satisfied with the treaty, retreated from the empire and returned to their home, where they consolidated and strengthened their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of [[Constantinople]], building the city's first [[sea wall]]. He also built up his border defenses along the [[Danube]].
  
−
Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next five years as they tried to invade the [[Persian Empire]]. A defeat in [[Armenia]] caused them to abandon this attempt and return their attentions to Europe. In 440 they reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfill their treaty obligations and that the [[bishop]] of Margus had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They crossed the Danube and laid waste to [[Illyria]]n cities and forts on the river, among them, according to [[Priscus]], [[Viminacium]], which was a city of the [[Moesian]]s in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them.
+
Attila and Belda remained out of Roman sight for the next five years as they tried to invade the [[Persian Empire]]. A defeat in [[Armenia]] caused them to abandon this attempt and return their attention to Europe. In 440, they reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking merchants at a market on the north bank of the Danube. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfill their treaty obligations and that the [[bishop]] of Margus had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They then crossed the Danube and laid waste to [[Illyria]]n cities and forts on the river. When the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and made his own peace with them, enabling them to take the city of Margus.
  
−
Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in response to the Vandal [[Geiseric]]'s capture of [[Carthage]] in 440 and the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] [[Yazdegerd II of Persia|Yazdegerd II's]] invasion of [[Armenia]] in 441. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took [[Singidunum]] (modern [[Belgrade]]) and [[Sirmium]] before halting. A lull followed in 442 and during this time Theodosius recalled his troops from [[North Africa]] and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns. Having made these preparations, he thought it safe to refuse the Hunnish kings' demands.
+
Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in responding to earlier battles against the [[Vandals]] at [[Carthage]] in 440 and the [[Sassanids]] in [[Armenia]] in 441. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through [[Illyria]] into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Singidunum (modern [[Belgrade]]) and Sirmium before halting. A lull followed in 442, and during this time Theodosius recalled his troops from North Africa and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns.
  
−
Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their [[Military campaign|campaign]] in 443. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of [[Ratiara]] and successfully besieged Naissus (modern [[Niš]]) with [[battering ram]]s and rolling towers—military sophistication that was new to the Hun repertory—then pushing along the [[Nisava]] they took Serdica ([[Sofia]]), Philippopolis ([[Plovdiv]]), and [[Arcadiopolis]]. They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside Constantinople and were only halted by their lack of [[siege]] equipment capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official [[Anatolius]] to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (ca. 1,963 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 ''solidi''.
+
Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their military campaign in 443. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of Ratiara and successfully besieged Naissus (modern Niš) with battering rams and rolling towers—military sophistication that was new to the Huns. Then, pushing along the Nisava Riva, they took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis. They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside [[Constantinople]] and were only halted by a lack of siege equipment capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official Anatolius to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds of gold; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to twelve ''solidi.''
  
−
Their demands met for a time, the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to [[Jordanes]] (following [[Priscus]]), sometime during the peace following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445), Bleda died (killed by his brother, according to the classical sources), and Attila took the throne for himself.<ref>[http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/embassy.htm Priscus of Panium: fragments from the Embassy to Attila]</ref> Now undisputed lord of the Huns, he again turned towards the eastern Roman Empire.
+
Their demands met for a time, the Huns withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to the historian [[Jordanes]] (following [[Priscus]]), sometime during the peace (probably around 445), Bleda died, reportedly killed by Attila.<ref>Villanova University, Embassy to Attila.</ref> Now undisputed lord of the Huns, Attila again turned towards the eastern Roman Empire.
  
 
==Sole ruler==
 
==Sole ruler==
−
In 447 Attila again rode south into the empire through [[Moesia]]. The [[Roman military history|Roman army]] under the [[Goths|Gothic]] ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Arnegisclus]] met him on the river [[Vid]] and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as [[Thermopylae]]. Constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect [[Flavius Constantinus]] who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes, and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. An account of this invasion survives:
+
[[Image:MorThanFeastofAttila.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mór Than's painting ''The Feast of Attila'', based on an account of the historian [[Priscus]] (depicted at right, dressed in white and holding his history):"When evening began to draw in, torches were lighted, and two barbarians came forward in front of Attila and sang songs which they had composed, hymning his victories and his great deeds in war. And the banqueters gazed at them, and some were rejoiced at the songs, others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars, but others broke into tears."]]
  
−
: ''The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in [[Thrace]], became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the [[churches]] and [[monasteries]] and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers.''
+
In 447, Attila again rode south into the empire. The Roman army under the Gothic commander Arnegisclus met him at the river Vid and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the [[Balkans]] as far as [[Thermopylae]]. [[Constantinople]], itself, was saved by the intervention of the prefect [[Flavius Constantinus]], who organized the reconstruction of the walls. An pro-Roman account of this invasion survives:
−
::— Callinicus, in his ''Life of Saint Hypatius''
 
−
[[Image:MorThanFeastofAttila.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Mór Than]]'s painting ''The Feast of Attila'', based on a fragment of [[Priscus]] (depicted at right, dressed in white and holding his history):<br> <small>"When evening began to draw in, torches were lighted, and two barbarians came forward in front of Attila and sang songs which they had composed, hymning his victories and his great deeds in war. And the banqueters gazed at them, and some were rejoiced at the songs, others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars, but others broke into tears—those whose bodies were weakened by time and whose spirit was compelled to be at rest." </small>]]
 
  
−
Attila demanded, as a condition of peace, that the Romans should continue paying [[tribute]] in gold and evacuate a strip of land stretching three hundred miles east from Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and up to a hundred miles south of the Danube. Negotiations continued for approximately three years. The [[historian]] [[Priscus]] was sent as emissary to Attila's encampment in 448, and the fragments of his reports preserved by Jordanes offer the best glimpse of Attila among his numerous wives, his [[Scythia]]n fool, and his [[Moors|Moorish]] [[dwarf]], impassive and unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers:
+
<blockquote>The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers (Callinicus, ''Life of Saint Hypatius'').</blockquote>
  
−
:''A luxurious meal, served on silver plate, had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests, but Attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher. In everything else, too, he showed himself temperate; his cup was of wood, while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver. His dress, too, was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Scythian shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Scythians, with gold or gems or anything costly.''
+
Attila demanded, as a condition of peace, that the Romans should continue paying tribute in gold and evacuate a strip of land stretching 300 miles east from Singidunum (modern [[Belgrade]]) and up to a hundred miles south of the Danube. Negotiations continued for three years. [[Priscus]] was sent as emissary to Attila's encampment in 448, and the fragments of his reports preserved by [[Jordanes]] offer the best glimpse of Attila among his numerous wives, his Scythian fool, and his [[Moors|Moorish]] dwarf—impassive, unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers:
  
−
"The floor of the room was covered with woollen mats for walking on," Priscus noted.
+
<blockquote>A luxurious meal, served on silver plate, had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests, but Attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher. In everything else, too, he showed himself temperate; his cup was of wood, while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver. His dress, too, was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Scythian shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Scythians, with gold or gems or anything costly.</blockquote>
  
−
During these three years, according to a legend recounted by Jordanes, Attila discovered the "Sword of Mars":
+
During these three years, according to a legend recounted by Jordanes, Attila discovered the "Sword of [[Mars]]":
−
:''The historian Priscus says it was discovered under the following circumstances: "When a certain shepherd beheld one heifer of his flock limping and could find no cause for this wound, he anxiously followed the trail of blood and at length came to a sword it had unwittingly trampled while nibbling the grass. He dug it up and took it straight to Attila. He rejoiced at this gift and, being ambitious, thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world, and that through the sword of Mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him.''
+
<blockquote>He rejoiced at this gift and, being ambitious, thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world, and that through the sword of Mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him (Jordanes, ''The Origin and Deeds of the Goths,'' ch. XXXV).</blockquote>
−
::— Jordanes, ''[[The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]]'' ch. XXXV <ref>[http://www.boudicca.de/jordanes3-e.htm The Origin and Deeds of the Goths by Jordanes (e-text)]</ref>
 
  
 
==Attila in the west==
 
==Attila in the west==
−
As late as 450 Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful [[Visigoth]] kingdom of [[Toulouse]], making an [[military alliance|alliance]] with Emperor [[Valentinian III]] in order to do so. He had previously been on good terms with the western Roman Empire and its ''[[de facto]]'' ruler [[Flavius Aëtius]]. Aetius had spent a brief [[exile]] among the Huns in 433, and the troops Attila provided against the [[Goths]] and [[Bagaudae]] had helped earn him the largely honorary title of ''magister militum'' in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of [[Geiseric]], who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans.
+
[[Image:Galla Placidia (rechts) und ihre Kinder.jpg|thumb|250px|Honoria (center)—with her brother [[Valentinian III]] and her mother [[Galla Placidia]]—sought Attila's aid in escaping from an unwanted arranged marriage.]]
 +
As late as 450, Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful [[Visigoth]] kingdom of [[Toulouse]], making a military alliance with Emperor [[Valentinian III]] in order to do so. He had previously been on good terms with the western Roman Empire and its ''de facto'' ruler [[Flavius Aëtius]]. Aetius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops Attila provided against the [[Goths]] and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of ''magister militum'' in the west.
  
−
However Valentinian's sister [[Justa Grata Honoria|Honoria]], in order to escape her forced betrothal to a [[Roman Senate|Roman senator]], had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help—and her [[engagement ring]]—in the spring of 450. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as [[dowry]]. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother [[Galla Placidia]] convinced him to exile, rather than kill, Honoria. He also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to [[Ravenna]] to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.
+
However, Valentinian's sister [[Justa Grata Honoria]], in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman [[senator]], had sent Attila a plea for help—-and her engagement ring—-in the spring of 450. Attila, not unreasonably, interpreted her message as a proposal of marriage. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as [[dowry]]. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother, [[Galla Placidia]], convinced him to exile Honoria rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to [[Ravenna]] to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.
  
−
[[Image:Attila in Gaul 451C.E..svg|left|300 px|thumb|The general path of the Hun forces in the invasion of Gaul, leading up to the [[Battle of Chalons]].]]
+
[[Image:Attila-in-Gaul.png|thumb|250px|left|Map of Attila's campaigns in Gaul.]]  
−
Meanwhile the king of the [[Salian Franks]] had died and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between Attila and Aetius; Attila supported the elder son, while Aetius supported the younger.<ref>This younger son may have been [[Merovech]], founder of the [[Merovingian]] line, though the sources—[[Gregory of Tours]] and a later roster from the [[Battle of Chalons]]—are not conclusive.</ref> He gathered his [[vassal]]s—[[Gepids]], [[Ostrogoths]], [[Rugians]], [[Scirians]], [[Heruls]], [[Thuringians]], [[Alans]], [[Burgundians]], among others—and begun his march west. In 451 he arrived in [[Belgica]] with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. [[J.B. Bury]] believes that Attila's intent, by the time he marched west, was to extend his kingdom—already the strongest on the continent—across [[Gaul]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref>[[J.B. Bury]], ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians'', lecture IX [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/bury/017.php (e-text)]</ref>
+
Meanwhile, the king of the Salian [[Franks]] had died and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between Attila and Aetius; Attila supported the elder son, while Aetius supported the younger, who may have been Merovech, founder of the Merovingian line, though the sources—-Gregory of Tours and a later roster from the Battle of Chalons—are not conclusive. He gathered his vassal—Gepids, [[Ostrogoths]], Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others—and begun his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army reported by Jordanes to be half a million strong.  
  
−
On [[April 7]], he captured [[Metz]], and Aetius moved to oppose him, gathering troops from among the [[Franks]], the [[Burgundians]], and the [[Celts]]. A mission by [[Avitus]], and Attila's continued westward advance, convinced the Visigoth king [[Theodoric I]] (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached [[Orleans]] ahead of Attila,<ref>Later accounts of the battle place the Huns either already within the city or in the midst of storming it when the Roman-Visigoth army arrived; Jordanes mentions no such thing. See Bury, ibid.</ref> thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aetius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near [[Châlons-en-Champagne]]. The two armies clashed in the [[Battle of Chalons]], whose outcome is commonly, though erroneously, considered to be a victory for the Gothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting and Aetius failed to press his advantage, according to Gibbon because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visogothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aetius' point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious. Perhaps Sir Edward Creasy best summarized Aetius's intentions at the Battle of Chalons:
+
On April 7, Attila captured [[Metz]], and Aetius moved to oppose him, gathering troops from among the Franks, the [[Burgundy|Burgundians]], and the [[Celts]]. Attila's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king [[Theodoric I]] to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orleans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aetius gave chase and caught the Huns near Châlons-en-Champagne. The two armies clashed in the Battle of Chalons. Theodoric was killed in the fighting and Aetius failed to press his advantage, according to historian Edward Gibbon because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visogothic triumph as much as he did a defeat by Attila.
−
:''It is probable that the crafty Aëtius was unwilling to be too victorious. He dreaded the glory which his allies the Visigoths had acquired, and feared that Rome might find a second Alaric in Prince Thorismund, who had signalized himself in the battle, and had been chosen on the field to succeed his father, Theodoric. He persuaded the young king to return at once to his capital, and thus relieved himself at the same time of the presence of a dangerous friend, as well as of a formidable though beaten foe.''
 
  
−
Gibbon states the majority view also quite eloquently: "(Attila's) retreat across the Rhine confessed the last victory which was achieved in the name of the Western Roman Empire."<ref>Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', The Modern Library, New York, volume II, p.1089.</ref> The Gothic-Roman alliance quickly dissolved.
+
==Invasion of Italy and demise==
  
−
==Invasion of Italy and death==
+
[[Image:Leoattila-Raphael.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Raphael's ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' shows Leo I, with Saint Peter and Saint Paul above him, going to meet Attila]]
−
[[Image:Leoattila-Raphael.jpg|thumb|275px|right|Raphael's ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' shows Leo I, with Saint Peter and Saint Paul above him, going to meet Attila]]
 
−
Attila returned in 452 to claim his marriage to Honoria anew, invading and ravaging [[Italy]] along the way. The city of [[Venice]] was founded as a result of these attacks when the residents would flee to small islands in the [[Venetian Lagoon]]. His army sacked numerous cities and razed [[Aquileia]] completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Legend has it he built a castle on top of a hill north of [[Aquileia]] to watch the city burn, thus founding the town of [[Udine]], where the castle can still be found.  Valentinian fled from [[Ravenna]] to [[Rome]]; Aetius remained in the field but lacked the strength to offer battle. Gibbon however says Aetius never showed his greatness more clearly than in managing to harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the [[Po]], where he met an embassy including the [[prefect]] [[Trigetius]], the [[consul]] [[Aviennus]], and [[Pope Leo I]]. After the meeting, he turned his army back, having achieved neither Honoria's hand nor the territories he desired.
 
  
−
Several explanations for his actions have been offered. The [[Pandemic|plague]] and [[famine]] which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken, or the troops that the new Byzantine emperor [[Marcian]] sent across the Danube may have given him reason to retreat, or perhaps both. [[Priscus]] reports that superstitious fear of the fate of [[Alaric I|Alaric]]—who died shortly after sacking Rome in 410—gave him pause. [[Prosper of Aquitaine]]'s pious "fable which has been represented by the pencil of [[Raphael]] and the chisel of [[Algardi]]" (as [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] called it) says that the Pope, aided by [[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], convinced him to turn away from the city.
+
Attila returned in 452 to claim his marriage to [[Honoria]] anew, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. The city of [[Venice]] was founded as a result of these attacks, when the residents would flee to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed [[Aquileia]] completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Legend has it he built a castle on top of a hill north of Aquileia to watch the city burn, thus founding the town of [[Udine]], where the castle can still be found. [[Valentinian]] fled from [[Ravenna]] to [[Rome]]; [[Aetius]] remained in the field, but lacked the strength to offer battle. Attila finally halted at the Pol where he met an embassy including the prefect Trigetius, the consul Aviennus, and [[Pope Leo I]]. After the meeting, he turned his army back, having achieved neither Honoria's hand nor the territories he desired.
  
−
[[Image:Attila-PopeLeo-ChroniconPictum.jpg|thumb|275px|left|An illustration of the meeting from the [[Chronicon Pictum]], c. [[1360]].]]
+
Several explanations for his actions have been offered. A [[pandemic]] and [[famine]] which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken, or the troops that the new Byzantine emperor [[Marcian]] sent across the [[Danube]] may have given him reason to retreat, or perhaps both. [[Priscus]] reports that superstitious fear of the fate of [[Alaric I]]—-who died shortly after sacking Rome in 410—-gave him pause. Prosper of Aquitaine's pious version of events, represented by the drawing of Raphael above, says that the Pope, aided spiritually by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, convinced him to turn away from the city.
−
Whatever his reasons, Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube. From there, he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. (Marcian was the successor of Theodosius and had ceased paying tribute in late 450 while Attila was occupied in the west; multiple invasions by the Huns and others had left the Balkans with little to plunder.) However Attila died in the early months of 453. The conventional account, from Priscus, says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage to the beautiful and young [[Ildico]] (if uncorrupted, the name suggests a Gothic origin)<ref> Thompson, The Huns p. 164</ref> he suffered a severe [[nosebleed]] and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative theory is that he succumbed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking.
 
  
−
Another story of his death, first recorded 80 years after the fact by the Roman chronicler [[Count Marcellinus]], reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife."<ref>[[Marcellinus Comes]], ''Chronicon'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html (e-text)], quoted in Hector Munro Chadwick: ''The Heroic Age'' (London, [[Cambridge University Press]], 1926), p. 39 n. 1.</ref> The ''Volsunga saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda'' also claim that King Atli (Attila) died at the hands of his wife, [[Gudrun]].<ref>''Volsunga Saga'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/volsunga/021.php Chapter 39]; ''Poetic Edda'', [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe35.htm Atlamol En Grönlenzku, The Greenland Ballad of Atli]</ref> Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables, preferring instead the version given by Attila's contemporary Priscus. The "official" account by Priscus, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny by Michael A. Babcock.<ref>Babcock, Michael A. ''The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun'', Berkley Books, 2005 ISBN 0-425-20272-0</ref> Based on detailed [[philological]] analysis, Babcock concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical "cover story" and that Emperor Marcian (who ruled the Eastern Roman Empire from 450-457) was the political force behind Attila's death.
+
Whatever his reasons, Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube. From there, he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. (Marcian was the successor of Theodosius and had ceased paying tribute in late 450 while Attila was occupied in the west.) However, Attila died in the early months of 453.
  
−
Attila's warriors, upon discovering his death, mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that, says Jordanes, "the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men." His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent where Attila lay in state, singing in his [[dirge]], according to [[Cassiodorus]] and Jordanes, "Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?" then celebrated a ''strava'' (lamentation) over his burial place with great feasting. Legend says that he was laid to rest in a triple coffin made of gold, silver, and iron, along with some of the spoils of his conquests. His men diverted a section of the [[Tisza]], buried the coffin under the riverbed, and then were killed to keep the exact location a secret.
+
==Death and legacy==
  
−
His sons [[Ellak]] (his appointed successor), [[Dengizich]], and [[Ernakh]] fought over the division of his legacy, specifically which vassal kings would belong to which brother. As a consequence they were divided, defeated and scattered the following year in the [[Battle of Nedao]] by the Ostrogoths and the Gepids under [[Ardaric]], whose pride was stirred by being treated along with his people like chattel. Thus Attila's empire did not outlast him.
+
[[Image:hun bow.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hun bow]]
  
−
Attila's many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but soon valid genealogical sources all but dry up and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants. This hasn't stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a [[descent from antiquity|valid line of descent]] for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the tsars of [[Bulgaria]] (see [[Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans]]). A popular, but ultimately unconfirmed attempt tries to relate Attila to [[Charlemagne]] (see [[Attila the Hun to Charlemagne]]).
+
The conventional account of his death, from Priscus, says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage to the beautiful and young Ildico (Thompson 1948, 164), he suffered a severe nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative theory is that he succumbed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking. Another story of his death, first recorded eighty years after the fact by the Roman chronicler Count Marcellinus, reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife.<ref>The Latin Library, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html Marcellinus Comes.] Retrieved June 1, 2007.</ref> The ''Volsunga saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda''<ref>The Internet Sacred Texts Archive, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe35.htm Atlamol En Gronlenzku.] Retrieved June 1, 2007.</ref>  also claim that King Atli (Attila) died at the hands of his wife, Gudrun. Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables, preferring instead the version given by Attila's contemporary Priscus. Priscus' account, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny. Michael A. Babcock (2005) concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical "cover story" and that Emperor Marcian was the political force behind Attila's death.
  
−
==Appearance, character, and name==
+
Attila's warriors, upon discovering his death, mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that, says Jordanes, "the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men." His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent where Attila lay in state, singing in his dirge. They then celebrated a ''strava'' (lamentation) over his burial place with great feasting. Legend says that he was laid to rest in a triple coffin made of gold, silver, and iron, along with various spoils of his conquests. His men diverted a section of the Tisza Riva, buried the coffin under the riverbed, and then were killed to keep the exact location a secret.
−
[[Image:AttilaTheHun.jpg|frame|Artist's rendering of Attila the Hun (made centuries after his death).]]
 
−
There is no surviving first-person account of Attila's appearance. We do have a possible second hand source, however, provided by [[Jordanes]], a controversial historian, who claimed [[Priscus]] described Attila as: "short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with gray; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin".
 
  
−
Attila is known in Western history and tradition as the grim "Scourge of God", and his name has become a byword for cruelty and [[Barbarian|barbarism]]. Some of this may have arisen from confusion between him and later [[steppe]] warlords such as [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur|Tamerlane]]. All are considered to be cruel, clever, and blood-thirsty lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character is probably more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic ''[[foederati]]'' of the border, so that by the time of Theodosius's embassy in 448 Priscus could identify two primary languages among the Huns, [[Gothic language|Gothic]] and [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]], with some people knowing [[Latin]] and [[Greek]]. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration.
+
His sons Ellak (his appointed successor), Dengizich, and Ernakh fought over the division of his legacy, specifically which [[vassal]] kings would belong to which brother. As a consequence, they were divided, defeated, and scattered the following year in the Battle of Nedao by the [[Ostrogoths]] and the [[Gepids]] under [[Ardaric]], whose pride was stirred by being treated along with his people like chattel. Thus Attila's empire did not outlast him.
  
−
The origin of Attila's name is not known with confidence. Historical linguists believe, as the evidence suggests, the name is Gothic (or Gepid), from the word ''atta'' ("father") and the diminutive suffix ''-ila''.<ref> {{cite book
+
Attila's many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but soon valid genealogical sources all but dry up and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants. This hasn't stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent from antiquity for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the [[tsars]] of [[Bulgaria]]. A popular, but ultimately unconfirmed, attempt tries to relate Attila to [[Charlemagne]].
−
  | last = Maenchen-Helfen
 
−
  | first =Otto
 
−
  | title =The World of the Huns
 
−
  | publisher = University of California Press
 
−
  | date =[[1973]]
 
−
  | chapter=Chapter 9.4
 
−
  | chapterurl=http://www.kroraina.com/huns/mh/mh_4.html
 
−
  | url = http://www.kroraina.com/huns/mh/
 
−
  | id = ISBN 978-0520015968 }}
 
−
</ref>. Attila was not a rare name in Central Europe, and the historical record has numerous persons with the name before Attila himself. Not surprisingly, Bleda's name also seems to have come from Gothic.
 
  
−
Attila's name has many variants: Atli and Atle in Norse, Ætla, Attle and Atlee in English, Etele and Attila in Hungarian and Etzel in modern German.
+
==Appearance, character, and name==
 +
There is no surviving first-person account of Attila's appearance. Historians do have a possible, second-hand source, however, provided by Jordanes, a controversial historian, who claimed Priscus described Attila as: "short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with gray; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin."
  
−
==Fictional representations==
+
In the West, Attila's name has become a byword for cruelty and [[Barbarian|barbarism]]. Some of this may have arisen from confusion between him and later steppe warlords, such as [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur|Tamerlane]]. All are considered to be cruel, clever, and blood-thirsty lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character is probably more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic ''foederati'' of the border, so that by the time of [[Theodosius]]'s embassy in 448, [[Priscus]] could identify two primary languages among the Huns, Gothic and Hunnic, with some people knowing [[Latin]] and [[Greek]]. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration.
−
Attila has been portrayed in various ways, sometimes as a noble ruler, sometimes as a cruel barbarian.
 
−
*In the German epic ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'' [[Etzel]] is portrayed as a noble and generous ally, while Atli in the ''[[Volsunga Saga]]'' and the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' (and Ætla in [[Widsith]]) is a cruel miser.
 
−
*In [[the Divine Comedy]] Attila appears in the seventh circle of Hell, immersed in a river of boiling blood, and is called "the scourge of Earth". Dante also charges him with the destruction of Florence, but this is a blunder by the author, who has confused him with the [[Ostrogoth]] warlord [[Totila]].
 
−
*The Hungarian [[Géza Gárdonyi]]'s novel ''A láthatatlan ember'' ([[1901]]) (published in English as ''Slave of the Huns'' and largely based on Priscus) offered a sympathetic portrait of Attila as a wise and beloved leader. This reflects the positive way in which Attila, his last wife Ildikó and his brother Bleda are viewed in [[Hungary]] and [[Turkey]].
 
−
*The novel [[The White Stag]], the [[Newbery Medal]] winning book of [[1938]], is a fictional account of the rise of Attila the Hun written in lyric prose.
 
−
*The British writer [[Anthony Burgess]] wrote a biographical [[novella]] about Attila entitled ''Hun'' which was published in the story collection [[The Devil's Mode and Other Stories|The Devil's Mode]] ([[1989]]).
 
−
*Attila was portrayed by [[Jack Palance]] in [[Douglas Sirk]]'s ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047490/ Sign of the Pagan]'' ([[1954]]).
 
−
*A TV miniseries, ''[[Attila (TV miniseries)|Attila]]'', was broadcast in 2001.
 
−
*He is a powerful and charismatic figure in William Napier's ongoing trilogy, ''Attila'' (volume one published in [[2005]]).
 
−
*The [[black metal]] band [[Dimmu Borgir]] made a song praising Attila called ''Hunnerkongens Sorgsvarte Ferd Over Steppene'', "The King of the Huns' Sorrowful Black Journey over the Steppes".
 
  
−
Though not typically associated with light-heartedness, Attila (or his stereotype) has been invoked in a comedic way from time to time:
+
The origin of Attila's name is not known with confidence. Historical linguists believe, as the evidence suggests, the name is Gothic (or Gepid), from the word ''atta'' ("father") and the diminutive suffix ''-ila.'' Attila was not a rare name in Central Europe, and the historical record has numerous persons with the name before Attila, himself. Not surprisingly, Bleda's name also seems to have come from Gothic.
−
*Attila is the protagonist of the Italian comedy movie, ''[http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila_flagello_di_Dio Attila, flagello di Dio]'', directed by Castellano and Pipolo, and staring [[Diego Abatantuono]].  This 1982 film has become a [[cult classic]], and is a prime example of Italian ''cinema trash'' of the 1980's. It is still very well know among Italy's younger generations.
 
−
*The comic strip character [[Broom-Hilda]] is supposedly Attila's ex-wife.
 
−
*In [[Woody Allen]]'s satirical film ''[[Love and Death]]'', [[Diane Keaton]]'s character justifies a plan to assassinate [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] based on this alleged quote by Attila: "Violence is justified in the service of mankind".
 
−
*In [[Will Cuppy]]'s satirical European history book, ''The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody'', he makes fun of the question of how to pronounce Attila's name: "Attila does not rhyme with vanilla as it used to in my day. It is believed that, if children can be taught to accent Attila on the first syllable, things may take a turn for the better."
 
−
*A [[Monty Python|Monty Python's Flying Circus]] sketch features "The Attila the Hun Show."
 
−
*In Shawn Levy's film ''[[Night at the Museum]]'', Attila is brought to life on a nightly basis, along with other historical figures, though he is incorrectly depicted as being East Asian. His destructiveness as an adult is attributed to a heartbreaking experience he had as a child.
 
  
−
The PC game [[Age of Empires II: The Conquerors Expansion]] has a single player campaign involving Attila's conquests.
+
Attila's name has many variants: Atli and Atle in Norse; Ætla, Attle, and Atlee in English; Etele and Attila in Hungarian; and Etzel in modern German.
  
−
==Notes and References==
+
==Notes==
 
{{reflist}}
 
{{reflist}}
−
===Classical texts===
+
 
−
*Priscus: ''Byzantine History'', available in the original Greek in Ludwig Dindorf : ''Historici Graeci Minores'' (Leipzig, [[Teubner]], 1870) and available online as a translation by [[J.B. Bury]]: ''[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/priscus.html Priscus at the court of Attila]''
+
==References==
−
*Jordanes: ''[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]''
+
* Babcock, Michael A. 2005. ''The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun.'' Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 0-425-20272-0  
−
===Recommended modern works===
+
* Blockley, R. C. 1983. ''The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire,'' vol. II. Francis Cairns Publications. ISBN 0-905205-15-4
−
*Babcock, Michael A. ([[2005]]) ''The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun'' (Berkley Publishing Group, ISBN 0-425-20272-0)
+
* Gordon, C. D. 1960. ''The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians''. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472061119
−
*Blockley, R.C. ([[1983]]) ''The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire'', vol. II (ISBN 0-905205-15-4). This is a collection of fragments from Priscus, Olympiodorus, and others, with original text and translation.
+
* Heather, Peter. 2005. ''The Fall of the Roman Empire—A New History of Rome and the Barbarians.'' Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195159543
−
*Gordon, C. D. ([[1960]]) ''The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians'' (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0472061119). This is a translated collection, with commentary and annotation, of ancient writings on the subject, including Priscus.
+
* Howarth, Patrick. 2001. ''Attila, King of the Huns: The Man and the Myth.'' Avalon Publishing Group. ISBN 0786709308
−
*Heather, Peter ([[2005]]) ''The Fall of the Roman Empire—A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'' (Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195159543)
+
* Maenchen-Helfen, J. Otto. 1973. ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture.'' University of California Press. ISBN 0520015967
−
*Howarth, Patrick ([[1994]]) ''Attila, King of the Huns: The Man and the Myth '' (ISBN 0786709308).
+
* Man, John. 2005. ''Attila: The Barbarian King Who Challenged Rome'' Bantam Press. ISBN 0593052919
−
*Maenchen-Helfen, J. Otto ([[1973]]) ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, ISBN 0520015967)
+
* Thompson, E. A. 1948. ''A History of Attila and the Huns.'' London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0837176409
−
*Man, John ([[2005]]) ''Attila: A Barbarian King and the Fall of Rome'' (Bantam Press, ISBN 0-593-05291-9)
 
−
*Thompson, E. A. ([[1948]]) ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0837176409). This is the authoritative English work on the subject. It was reprinted in 1999 as ''The Huns'' in the ''Peoples of Europe'' series (ISBN 0-631-21443-7). Thompson did not enter controversies over Hunnic origins and considers his victories to have been achieved only when there was no concerted opposition.
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/attilathehun1.html portrait of Attila the Hun], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
+
All links retrieved November 30, 2021.
−
* Edward Gibbon describes Attila in his classic [http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap34.htm The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]
+
* [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/attilathehun1.html Portrait of Attila the Hun].  
−
* Excerpt from 'Leadership Secrets of Attila The Hun' By Wess Roberts, Ph. D describing Attila's [http://worldservicecorps.us/attila%20intro.htm experience in Rome].
+
* [http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap34.htm The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 34].
 +
* [http://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html The Origin and Deeds of the Goths].  
 +
 
 +
 
  
 
{{start box}}
 
{{start box}}
 +
 
{{succession box | before = [[Bleda]]| title = [[List of Hunnish rulers|Hunnic rulers]] | years = 445 – 453 | after = [[Ellac]]}}
 
{{succession box | before = [[Bleda]]| title = [[List of Hunnish rulers|Hunnic rulers]] | years = 445 – 453 | after = [[Ellac]]}}
 
{{end box}}
 
{{end box}}
 +
 +
[[category:history]]
 +
[[category:biography]]
 +
 +
{{credit|109593006}}

Revision as of 06:16, 9 January 2023


Attila the Hun
King of Huns
Attila-ChroniconPictum.jpg
Reign 434 – 453
Born c.406
Died 453
Predecessor Bleda & Rugila
Successor Ellac
Father Mundzuk

Attila (c. 406 - 453 C.E.) was the monarch of the Hun people from 434 C.E. until his death. His empire stretched from the Netherlands to the Ural River and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea. During his rule, he was one of the most fearsome of the Roman Empire's enemies: he invaded the Balkans twice, besieging Constantinople on the second invasion; he marched through Gaul (modern day France) as far as Orleans before being defeated at the Battle of Chalons; and he drove the western emperor Valentinian III from his capital at Ravenna in 452.

Although some histories lionize Attila as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse sagas, in much of Western Europe he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. Though his empire died with him, he became a legendary figure in Western history and tradition, being known as the grim "Scourge of God."

Background

The origin of the European Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. However, there is general agreement that they were a confederation of Eurasian and European tribes that appeared in Europe in the fourth century. The Huns achieved military superiority over their rivals—most of them highly cultured and civilized—by their readiness for combat, unusual mobility and horsemanship, and weapons such as the Hun bow.

Nothing is known about Attila's youth except for the day he was born. He first appeared in the historical record when he became joint king of the Huns with his brother, Bleda. While his belief system was unknown, Attila seems to have had little interest either in Christianity or other religions.

Shared kingship

The Hunnic Empire stretched from the steppes of Central Asia into modern Germany, and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea.

By 432 C.E., the Huns were united under Rugila, whose death in 434 left his nephews Attila and Bleda (the sons of Rugila's brother Mundzuk) in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were bargaining with Byzantine emperor Theodosius II's envoys over the return of several renegade tribes who had taken refuge within the Byzantine Empire. The following year Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present day Požarevac) and, seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful treaty. The Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid to Rome against the Vandals), but also to double their previous tribute to the Huns of 350 Roman pounds of gold. They also opened their markets to Hunnish traders, and paid a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The royal brothers, satisfied with the treaty, retreated from the empire and returned to their home, where they consolidated and strengthened their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall. He also built up his border defenses along the Danube.

Attila and Belda remained out of Roman sight for the next five years as they tried to invade the Persian Empire. A defeat in Armenia caused them to abandon this attempt and return their attention to Europe. In 440, they reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking merchants at a market on the north bank of the Danube. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfill their treaty obligations and that the bishop of Margus had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They then crossed the Danube and laid waste to Illyrian cities and forts on the river. When the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and made his own peace with them, enabling them to take the city of Margus.

Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in responding to earlier battles against the Vandals at Carthage in 440 and the Sassanids in Armenia in 441. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and Sirmium before halting. A lull followed in 442, and during this time Theodosius recalled his troops from North Africa and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns.

Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their military campaign in 443. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of Ratiara and successfully besieged Naissus (modern Niš) with battering rams and rolling towers—military sophistication that was new to the Huns. Then, pushing along the Nisava Riva, they took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis. They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside Constantinople and were only halted by a lack of siege equipment capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official Anatolius to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds of gold; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to twelve solidi.

Their demands met for a time, the Huns withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to the historian Jordanes (following Priscus), sometime during the peace (probably around 445), Bleda died, reportedly killed by Attila.[1] Now undisputed lord of the Huns, Attila again turned towards the eastern Roman Empire.

Sole ruler

Mór Than's painting The Feast of Attila, based on an account of the historian Priscus (depicted at right, dressed in white and holding his history):"When evening began to draw in, torches were lighted, and two barbarians came forward in front of Attila and sang songs which they had composed, hymning his victories and his great deeds in war. And the banqueters gazed at them, and some were rejoiced at the songs, others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars, but others broke into tears."

In 447, Attila again rode south into the empire. The Roman army under the Gothic commander Arnegisclus met him at the river Vid and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as Thermopylae. Constantinople, itself, was saved by the intervention of the prefect Flavius Constantinus, who organized the reconstruction of the walls. An pro-Roman account of this invasion survives:

The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers (Callinicus, Life of Saint Hypatius).

Attila demanded, as a condition of peace, that the Romans should continue paying tribute in gold and evacuate a strip of land stretching 300 miles east from Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and up to a hundred miles south of the Danube. Negotiations continued for three years. Priscus was sent as emissary to Attila's encampment in 448, and the fragments of his reports preserved by Jordanes offer the best glimpse of Attila among his numerous wives, his Scythian fool, and his Moorish dwarf—impassive, unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers:

A luxurious meal, served on silver plate, had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests, but Attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher. In everything else, too, he showed himself temperate; his cup was of wood, while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver. His dress, too, was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Scythian shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Scythians, with gold or gems or anything costly.

During these three years, according to a legend recounted by Jordanes, Attila discovered the "Sword of Mars":

He rejoiced at this gift and, being ambitious, thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world, and that through the sword of Mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him (Jordanes, The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, ch. XXXV).

Attila in the west

Honoria (center)—with her brother Valentinian III and her mother Galla Placidia—sought Attila's aid in escaping from an unwanted arranged marriage.

As late as 450, Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, making a military alliance with Emperor Valentinian III in order to do so. He had previously been on good terms with the western Roman Empire and its de facto ruler Flavius Aëtius. Aetius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west.

However, Valentinian's sister Justa Grata Honoria, in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator, had sent Attila a plea for help—-and her engagement ring—-in the spring of 450. Attila, not unreasonably, interpreted her message as a proposal of marriage. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother, Galla Placidia, convinced him to exile Honoria rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.

Map of Attila's campaigns in Gaul.

Meanwhile, the king of the Salian Franks had died and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between Attila and Aetius; Attila supported the elder son, while Aetius supported the younger, who may have been Merovech, founder of the Merovingian line, though the sources—-Gregory of Tours and a later roster from the Battle of Chalons—are not conclusive. He gathered his vassal—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others—and begun his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army reported by Jordanes to be half a million strong.

On April 7, Attila captured Metz, and Aetius moved to oppose him, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. Attila's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orleans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aetius gave chase and caught the Huns near Châlons-en-Champagne. The two armies clashed in the Battle of Chalons. Theodoric was killed in the fighting and Aetius failed to press his advantage, according to historian Edward Gibbon because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visogothic triumph as much as he did a defeat by Attila.

Invasion of Italy and demise

Raphael's The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila shows Leo I, with Saint Peter and Saint Paul above him, going to meet Attila

Attila returned in 452 to claim his marriage to Honoria anew, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. The city of Venice was founded as a result of these attacks, when the residents would flee to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Legend has it he built a castle on top of a hill north of Aquileia to watch the city burn, thus founding the town of Udine, where the castle can still be found. Valentinian fled from Ravenna to Rome; Aetius remained in the field, but lacked the strength to offer battle. Attila finally halted at the Pol where he met an embassy including the prefect Trigetius, the consul Aviennus, and Pope Leo I. After the meeting, he turned his army back, having achieved neither Honoria's hand nor the territories he desired.

Several explanations for his actions have been offered. A pandemic and famine which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken, or the troops that the new Byzantine emperor Marcian sent across the Danube may have given him reason to retreat, or perhaps both. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric I—-who died shortly after sacking Rome in 410—-gave him pause. Prosper of Aquitaine's pious version of events, represented by the drawing of Raphael above, says that the Pope, aided spiritually by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, convinced him to turn away from the city.

Whatever his reasons, Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube. From there, he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. (Marcian was the successor of Theodosius and had ceased paying tribute in late 450 while Attila was occupied in the west.) However, Attila died in the early months of 453.

Death and legacy

Hun bow

The conventional account of his death, from Priscus, says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage to the beautiful and young Ildico (Thompson 1948, 164), he suffered a severe nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative theory is that he succumbed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking. Another story of his death, first recorded eighty years after the fact by the Roman chronicler Count Marcellinus, reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife.[2] The Volsunga saga and the Poetic Edda[3] also claim that King Atli (Attila) died at the hands of his wife, Gudrun. Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables, preferring instead the version given by Attila's contemporary Priscus. Priscus' account, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny. Michael A. Babcock (2005) concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical "cover story" and that Emperor Marcian was the political force behind Attila's death.

Attila's warriors, upon discovering his death, mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that, says Jordanes, "the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men." His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent where Attila lay in state, singing in his dirge. They then celebrated a strava (lamentation) over his burial place with great feasting. Legend says that he was laid to rest in a triple coffin made of gold, silver, and iron, along with various spoils of his conquests. His men diverted a section of the Tisza Riva, buried the coffin under the riverbed, and then were killed to keep the exact location a secret.

His sons Ellak (his appointed successor), Dengizich, and Ernakh fought over the division of his legacy, specifically which vassal kings would belong to which brother. As a consequence, they were divided, defeated, and scattered the following year in the Battle of Nedao by the Ostrogoths and the Gepids under Ardaric, whose pride was stirred by being treated along with his people like chattel. Thus Attila's empire did not outlast him.

Attila's many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but soon valid genealogical sources all but dry up and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants. This hasn't stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent from antiquity for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the tsars of Bulgaria. A popular, but ultimately unconfirmed, attempt tries to relate Attila to Charlemagne.

Appearance, character, and name

There is no surviving first-person account of Attila's appearance. Historians do have a possible, second-hand source, however, provided by Jordanes, a controversial historian, who claimed Priscus described Attila as: "short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with gray; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin."

In the West, Attila's name has become a byword for cruelty and barbarism. Some of this may have arisen from confusion between him and later steppe warlords, such as Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. All are considered to be cruel, clever, and blood-thirsty lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character is probably more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic foederati of the border, so that by the time of Theodosius's embassy in 448, Priscus could identify two primary languages among the Huns, Gothic and Hunnic, with some people knowing Latin and Greek. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully assimilated into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration.

The origin of Attila's name is not known with confidence. Historical linguists believe, as the evidence suggests, the name is Gothic (or Gepid), from the word atta ("father") and the diminutive suffix -ila. Attila was not a rare name in Central Europe, and the historical record has numerous persons with the name before Attila, himself. Not surprisingly, Bleda's name also seems to have come from Gothic.

Attila's name has many variants: Atli and Atle in Norse; Ætla, Attle, and Atlee in English; Etele and Attila in Hungarian; and Etzel in modern German.

Notes

  1. ↑ Villanova University, Embassy to Attila.
  2. ↑ The Latin Library, Marcellinus Comes. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
  3. ↑ The Internet Sacred Texts Archive, Atlamol En Gronlenzku. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Babcock, Michael A. 2005. The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 0-425-20272-0
  • Blockley, R. C. 1983. The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire, vol. II. Francis Cairns Publications. ISBN 0-905205-15-4
  • Gordon, C. D. 1960. The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472061119
  • Heather, Peter. 2005. The Fall of the Roman Empire—A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195159543
  • Howarth, Patrick. 2001. Attila, King of the Huns: The Man and the Myth. Avalon Publishing Group. ISBN 0786709308
  • Maenchen-Helfen, J. Otto. 1973. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 0520015967
  • Man, John. 2005. Attila: The Barbarian King Who Challenged Rome Bantam Press. ISBN 0593052919
  • Thompson, E. A. 1948. A History of Attila and the Huns. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0837176409

External links

All links retrieved November 30, 2021.


Preceded by:
Bleda 		Hunnic rulers
445 – 453 		Succeeded by:
Ellac

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Attila_the_Hun&oldid=1094629

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki