Difference between revisions of "Atonement (satisfaction view)" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[File:Crucifixion of Christ by Pietro Perugino.jpg|thumb|350px|Crucifixion of Christ by Pietro Perugino]]
 
In [[Christian]] [[theology]], the '''satisfaction view of the [[atonement]]''' is the dominant theory of the meaning of the death of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] taught in [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], and [[Calvinism|Reformed]] circles since the [[Middle Ages]]. Theologically and historically, the word "satisfaction" does not mean gratification as in common usage, but rather "to make restitution," mending what has been broken, or paying back what was taken. It is thus connected with the legal concept of balancing out an injustice. Drawing primarily from the works of [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (d. 1109 C.E.), the satisfaction theory teaches that Christ suffered as a substitute on behalf of humankind satisfying the demands of God's honor by his infinite merit. Anselm regarded his satisfaction view of the atonement as a distinct improvement over the older [[Atonement (ransom view)|ransom theory of the atonement]], which he saw as inadequate. Anselm's theory was a precursor to the refinements of [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[John Calvin]] which introduced the idea of punishment to meet the demands of divine justice.
 
In [[Christian]] [[theology]], the '''satisfaction view of the [[atonement]]''' is the dominant theory of the meaning of the death of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] taught in [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], and [[Calvinism|Reformed]] circles since the [[Middle Ages]]. Theologically and historically, the word "satisfaction" does not mean gratification as in common usage, but rather "to make restitution," mending what has been broken, or paying back what was taken. It is thus connected with the legal concept of balancing out an injustice. Drawing primarily from the works of [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (d. 1109 C.E.), the satisfaction theory teaches that Christ suffered as a substitute on behalf of humankind satisfying the demands of God's honor by his infinite merit. Anselm regarded his satisfaction view of the atonement as a distinct improvement over the older [[Atonement (ransom view)|ransom theory of the atonement]], which he saw as inadequate. Anselm's theory was a precursor to the refinements of [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[John Calvin]] which introduced the idea of punishment to meet the demands of divine justice.
 
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== Development of the doctrine ==
 
== Development of the doctrine ==
The classic Anselmian formulation of the satisfaction view should be distinguished from penal substitution. Both are forms of satisfaction doctrine in that they speak of how Christ's death was ''satisfactory'', but penal substitution and Anselmian satisfaction offer different understandings of how Christ's death was satisfactory. Anselm speaks of human sin as defrauding God of the honour he is due. Christ's death, the ultimate act of obedience, brings God great honour. As it was beyond the call of duty for Christ, it is more honour than he was obliged to give. Christ's surplus can therefore repay our deficit. Hence Christ's death is ''substitutionary''; he pays the honour ''instead'' of us. Penal substitution differs in that it sees Christ's death not as repaying God for lost ''honour'' but rather paying the ''penalty'' of death that had always been the moral consequence for sin (e.g., {{Bibleref2|Genesis|2:17}}; {{Bibleref2|Romans|6:23}}). The key difference here is that for Anselm, satisfaction is an ''alternative'' to punishment, "The honor taken away must be repaid, or punishment must follow."<ref>Anselm of Canterbury, ''Cur Deus Homo'' Bk 1 Ch 8</ref> By Christ satisfying our debt of honor to God, we avoid punishment. In Calvinist Penal Substitution, it is the ''punishment'' which satisfies the demands of justice.
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The classic Anselmian formulation of the satisfaction view should be distinguished from penal substitution. Both are forms of satisfaction doctrine in that they speak of how Christ's death was ''satisfactory'', but penal substitution and Anselmian satisfaction offer different understandings of how Christ's death was satisfactory. Anselm speaks of human sin as defrauding God of the honor he is due. Christ's death, the ultimate act of obedience, brings God great honor. As it was beyond the call of duty for Christ, it is more honor than he was obliged to give. Christ's surplus can therefore repay our deficit. Hence Christ's death is ''substitutionary''; he pays the honor ''instead'' of us. Penal substitution differs in that it sees Christ's death not as repaying God for lost ''honor'' but rather paying the ''penalty'' of death that had always been the moral consequence for sin (e.g., {{Bibleref2|Genesis|2:17}}; {{Bibleref2|Romans|6:23}}). The key difference here is that for Anselm, satisfaction is an ''alternative'' to punishment, "The honor taken away must be repaid, or punishment must follow."<ref>Anselm of Canterbury, ''Cur Deus Homo'', Bk 1, Ch 8.</ref> By Christ satisfying our debt of honor to God, we avoid punishment. In Calvinist Penal Substitution, it is the ''punishment'' which satisfies the demands of justice.
  
 
Another distinction must be made between penal substitution (Christ ''punished'' instead of us) and substitutionary atonement (Christ suffers ''for'' us). Both affirm the substitutionary and vicarious nature of the atonement, but penal substitution offers a specific explanation as to what the suffering is for: ''punishment''.
 
Another distinction must be made between penal substitution (Christ ''punished'' instead of us) and substitutionary atonement (Christ suffers ''for'' us). Both affirm the substitutionary and vicarious nature of the atonement, but penal substitution offers a specific explanation as to what the suffering is for: ''punishment''.
  
 
=== Anselm links the atonement and the incarnation ===
 
=== Anselm links the atonement and the incarnation ===
[[Image:Anselm of Canterbury.jpg|thumb|left|St. Anselm of Canterbury]]
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[[Image:Anselm of Canterbury.jpg|thumb|left|300px|St. Anselm of Canterbury]]
  
[[Anselm of Canterbury]] first articulated the satisfaction view in his work, ''Cur Deus Homo?'', whose title means "Why did God become a Man?". The then-current [[Atonement (ransom view)|ransom theory of the atonement]] held that Jesus' death was paid as a ransom to [[Satan]], allowing God to rescue those under Satan's bondage.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', I.vii</ref> For Anselm, this solution was inadequate. Why should God the Son have to become a human to pay a ransom? Why should God owe anything at all to Satan?
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[[Anselm of Canterbury]] first articulated the satisfaction view in his work, ''Cur Deus Homo?'', whose title means "Why did God become a Man?." The then-current [[Atonement (ransom view)|ransom theory of the atonement]] held that Jesus' death was paid as a ransom to [[Satan]], allowing God to rescue those under Satan's bondage.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', I.vii.</ref> For Anselm, this solution was inadequate. Why should God the Son have to become a human to pay a ransom? Why should God owe anything at all to Satan?
  
Instead, Anselm suggested that ''we'' owe God a debt of honor: "This is the debt which man and angel owe to God, and no one who pays this debt commits sin; but every one who does not pay it sins. This is justice, or uprightness of will, which makes a being just or upright in heart, that is, in will; and this is the sole and complete debt of honor which we owe to God, and which God requires of us."<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', I.xi</ref> This debt creates essentially an imbalance in the moral universe; it could not be satisfied by God's simply ignoring it.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', I.xii</ref> In Anselm's view, the only possible way of repaying the debt was for a being of infinite greatness, acting as a man on behalf of men, to repay the debt of honor owed to God.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', II.vi</ref> Therefore, when Jesus died, he did not pay a debt to Satan but to God, His Father.
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Instead, Anselm suggested that ''we'' owe God a debt of honor: "This is the debt which man and angel owe to God, and no one who pays this debt commits sin; but every one who does not pay it sins. This is justice, or uprightness of will, which makes a being just or upright in heart, that is, in will; and this is the sole and complete debt of honor which we owe to God, and which God requires of us."<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', I.xi.</ref> This debt creates essentially an imbalance in the moral universe; it could not be satisfied by God's simply ignoring it.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', I.xii.</ref> In Anselm's view, the only possible way of repaying the debt was for a being of infinite greatness, acting as a man on behalf of men, to repay the debt of honor owed to God.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', II.vi</ref> Therefore, when Jesus died, he did not pay a debt to Satan but to God, His Father.
  
Anselm did not state specifically whether Jesus' payment of debt was for all of mankind as a group or for individual people, but his language leans in the former direction.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', II.xiv</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]]' later developments specifically attribute the scope of the atonement to be universal in nature.
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Anselm did not state specifically whether Jesus' payment of debt was for all of mankind as a group or for individual people, but his language leans in the former direction.<ref>''Cur Deus Homo'', II.xiv.</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]]' later developments specifically attribute the scope of the atonement to be universal in nature.
  
 
=== Thomas Aquinas codifies the substitution theory ===
 
=== Thomas Aquinas codifies the substitution theory ===
[[Image:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg|right|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
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[[Image:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg|right|thumb|300px|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
  
[[Thomas Aquinas]] elucidated the atonement in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' <ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.toc.html Summa Theologica] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref> into what is now the standard Catholic understanding of atonement. He explored the nature of [[sin]], debt, punishment, and grace. In his section on man, he considered whether punishment is good and appropriate, and he concluded that:
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[[Thomas Aquinas]] elucidated the atonement in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]''<ref>Thomas Aquinas, [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.toc.html Summa Theologica] Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> into what is now the standard Catholic understanding of atonement. He explored the nature of [[sin]], debt, punishment, and grace. In his section on man, he considered whether punishment is good and appropriate, and he concluded that:
 
#punishment is a morally good response to sin,
 
#punishment is a morally good response to sin,
 
#"Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins," and;
 
#"Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins," and;
#substitution for another's sin is entirely possible.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.FS_Q87.html FS Q87] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref>  
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#substitution for another's sin is entirely possible.<ref>[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.FS_Q87.html Of the Debt of Punishment (Eight Articles)] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>  
 
This is Aquinas' major difference with Anselm. Rather than seeing the debt as one of honor, he sees the debt as a moral injustice to be righted.  
 
This is Aquinas' major difference with Anselm. Rather than seeing the debt as one of honor, he sees the debt as a moral injustice to be righted.  
  
In his section on the [[Incarnation]], Aquinas argues that Christ's death satisfies the penalty owed by sin,<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.TP_Q50_A1.html Christian Classical Ethereal Library: Summa Theologica (TP, Q. 50.1)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref> and that it was Christ's [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] specifically that was needed to pay the debt of man's sin.<ref>Ibid., 46 and 47</ref> For Aquinas, the Passion of Jesus provided the merit needed to pay for sin: "Consequently Christ by His Passion merited salvation, not only for Himself, but likewise for all His members,"<ref>Ibid., 48</ref> and that the atonement consisted in Christ's giving to God more "than was required to compensate for the offense of the whole human race." In this way, Aquinas articulated the formal beginning of the idea of a superabundance of merit, which became the basis for the Catholic concept of the Treasury of Merit (see [[Indulgences]]). Aquinas also articulated the ideas of salvation that are now standard within the Catholic church: that justifying grace is provided through the sacraments; that the condign merit of our actions is matched by Christ's merit from the Treasury of Merit; and that sins can be classified as mortal and venial. For Aquinas, one is saved by drawing on Christ's merit, which is provided through the sacraments of the church.
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In his section on the [[Incarnation]], Aquinas argues that Christ's death satisfies the penalty owed by sin,<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.TP_Q50_A1.html Whether it was fitting that Christ should die?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> and that it was Christ's [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] specifically that was needed to pay the debt of man's sin.<ref>[https://ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa/summa.TP_Q46.html The Passion of the Christ (Twelve Articles)] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> For Aquinas, the Passion of Jesus provided the merit needed to pay for sin: "Consequently Christ by His Passion merited salvation, not only for Himself, but likewise for all His members,"<ref> [https://ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa/summa.TP_Q48_A1.html Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of merit?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> and that the atonement consisted in Christ's giving to God more "than was required to compensate for the offense of the whole human race."<ref>[https://ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa/summa.TP_Q48_A2.html Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of atonement?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> In this way, Aquinas articulated the formal beginning of the idea of a superabundance of merit, which became the basis for the Catholic concept of the Treasury of Merit (see [[Indulgences]]). Aquinas also articulated the ideas of salvation that are now standard within the Catholic church: that justifying grace is provided through the sacraments; that the condign merit of our actions is matched by Christ's merit from the Treasury of Merit; and that sins can be classified as mortal and venial. For Aquinas, one is saved by drawing on Christ's merit, which is provided through the sacraments of the church.
 
 
Aqunias' view may sound like penal substitution, but he is careful to say that he does not intend substitution to be taken in legal terms:<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.FS_Q87_A8.html (FS, Q. 87-A8)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref>
 
:"If we speak of that satisfactory punishment, which one takes upon oneself voluntarily, one may bear another's punishment…. If, however, we speak of punishment inflicted on account of sin, inasmuch as it is penal, then each one is punished for his own sin only, because the sinful act is something personal. But if we speak of a punishment that is medicinal, in this way it does happen that one is punished for another's sin." (Thomas Aquinas)
 
  
What he means by "satisfactory punishment," as opposed to punishment that is "penal," is essentially the Catholic idea of penance. Aquinas refers to the practice saying, "A satisfactory punishment is imposed upon penitents"<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.TP_Q49_A3.html (TP, Q49 A3)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref> and defines this idea of "Satisfactory Punishment" (penance) as a compensation of self-inflicted pain in equal measure to the pleasure derived from the sin. "Punishment may equal the pleasure contained in a sin committed." <ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.XP_Q13_A1.html (XP Q13 A1)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref>
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Aquinas' view may sound like penal substitution, but he is careful to say that he does not intend substitution to be taken in legal terms:
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<blockquote>If we speak of that satisfactory punishment, which one takes upon oneself voluntarily, one may bear another's punishment…. If, however, we speak of punishment inflicted on account of sin, inasmuch as it is penal, then each one is punished for his own sin only, because the sinful act is something personal. But if we speak of a punishment that is medicinal, in this way it does happen that one is punished for another's sin."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.FS_Q87_A8.html Whether anyone is punished for another's sin?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref></blockquote>
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What he means by "satisfactory punishment," as opposed to punishment that is "penal," is essentially the Catholic idea of penance. Aquinas refers to the practice saying, "A satisfactory punishment is imposed upon penitents"<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.TP_Q49_A3.html Whether men were freed from the punishment of sin through Christ's Passion?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> and defines this idea of "Satisfactory Punishment" (penance) as a compensation of self-inflicted pain in equal measure to the pleasure derived from the sin. "Punishment may equal the pleasure contained in a sin committed."<ref name=Q13A1>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.XP_Q13_A1.html Whether man can make satisfaction to God?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>
  
Aquinas sees penance as having two functions. First to pay a debt, and second "to serve as a remedy for the avoidance of sin." In this later case, he says that "as a remedy against future sin, the satisfaction of one does not profit another, for the flesh of one man is not tamed by another's fast" and again "one man is not freed from guilt by another's contrition."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.XP_Q13_A2.html (XP Q13 A2)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref> Since according to Aquinas "Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.FS_Q87_A7.html (FS, Q. 87-A7)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref> The penance Christ did has its effect in paying the "debt of punishment" incurred by our sin.
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Aquinas sees penance as having two functions. First to pay a debt, and second "to serve as a remedy for the avoidance of sin." In this later case, he says that "as a remedy against future sin, the satisfaction of one does not profit another, for the flesh of one man is not tamed by another's fast" and again "one man is not freed from guilt by another's contrition."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.XP_Q13_A2.html Whether one man can fulfill satisfactory punishment for another?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Since according to Aquinas "Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.FS_Q87_A7.html Whether every punishment is inflicted for a sin?] ''Summa Theologica''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> The penance Christ did has its effect in paying the "debt of punishment" incurred by our sin.
  
This concept is similar to Anselm's view that we owe a debt of honor to God, with a critical difference: While Anselm said we could never pay this debt because any good we could do was owed to God anyway, Aquinas said we could make up for our debt through acts of penance. Unlike Anselm, Aquinas claimed that we can make satisfaction for our own sin, and that our problem is not our personal sin, but original sin "original sin... is an infection of human nature itself, so that, unlike actual sin, it could not be expiated by the satisfaction of a mere man."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.XP_Q13_A1.html (XP Q13 A1)] Retrieved August 10, 2008.</ref> Thus Christ, as the "second Adam" (1 Cor. 15:45), does penance in our place paying the debt of our original sin.
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This concept is similar to Anselm's view that we owe a debt of honor to God, with a critical difference: While Anselm said we could never pay this debt because any good we could do was owed to God anyway, Aquinas said we could make up for our debt through acts of penance. Unlike Anselm, Aquinas claimed that we can make satisfaction for our own sin, and that our problem is not our personal sin, but original sin. As Aquinas said, "original sin... is an infection of human nature itself, so that, unlike actual sin, it could not be expiated by the satisfaction of a mere man."<ref name=Q13A1/> Thus Christ, as the "second Adam" (1 Cor. 15:45), does penance in our place&mdash;paying the debt of our original sin.
  
 
=== Calvin attributes atonement to individuals ===
 
=== Calvin attributes atonement to individuals ===
[[Image:John Calvin - best likeness.jpg|thumb|right|John Calvin (1509–1564).]]
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[[Image:John Calvin - best likeness.jpg|thumb|right|300px|John Calvin (1509–1564)]]
  
[[John Calvin]] (d. 1564 C.E.) was the first systematic theologian of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. As such, he wanted to solve the problem of Christ's atonement in a way that did justice to the Scriptures and Church Fathers, while still rejecting the need for condign merit.<ref>John Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', III.iv.27, III.xiv and xv</ref> His solution was that Christ's death on the cross paid not a ''general'' penalty for humanity's sins, but a ''specific'' penalty for the sins of individual people. That is, when Jesus died on the cross, his death paid the penalty at that time for the sins of all those who are saved.<ref>Ibid., II.xii.3-5</ref> One obviously necessary feature of this idea is that Christ's atonement is [[Limited atonement|limited]] in its effect only to those whom God has ''chosen'' to be saved, since the debt for sins was paid at a particular point in time (at the crucifixion).  
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[[John Calvin]] (d. 1564 C.E.) was the first systematic theologian of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. As such, he wanted to solve the problem of Christ's atonement in a way that did justice to the Scriptures and Church Fathers, while still rejecting the need for condign merit.<ref>John Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', III.iv.27, III.xiv and xv.</ref> His solution was that Christ's death on the cross paid not a ''general'' penalty for humanity's sins, but a ''specific'' penalty for the sins of individual people. That is, when Jesus died on the cross, his death paid the penalty at that time for the sins of all those who are saved.<ref>Calvin, II.xii.3-5</ref> One obviously necessary feature of this idea is that Christ's atonement is [[Limited atonement|limited]] in its effect only to those whom God has ''chosen'' to be saved, since the debt for sins was paid at a particular point in time (at the crucifixion).  
  
For Calvin, this also required drawing on Augustine's earlier theory of [[predestination]].<ref>Ibid., III.xvii</ref> Additionally, in rejecting the idea of penance, Calvin shifted from Aquinas' idea that satisfaction was [[penance]] (which focused on satisfaction as a change in humanity), to the idea of satisfying God's wrath. This ideological shift places the focus on a change in God, who is propitiated through Christ's death. The Calvinist understanding of the atonement and satisfaction is penal substitution: Christ is a substitute taking our punishment and thus satisfying the demands of justice and appeasing God's wrath so that God can justly show grace.  
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For Calvin, this also required drawing on Augustine's earlier theory of [[predestination]].<ref>Calvin, III.xvii</ref> Additionally, in rejecting the idea of penance, Calvin shifted from Aquinas' idea that satisfaction was [[penance]] (which focused on satisfaction as a change in humanity), to the idea of satisfying God's wrath. This ideological shift places the focus on a change in God, who is propitiated through Christ's death. The Calvinist understanding of the atonement and satisfaction is penal substitution: Christ is a substitute taking our punishment and thus satisfying the demands of justice and appeasing God's wrath so that God can justly show grace.  
  
 
John Stott has stressed that this must be understood not as the Son placating the Father, but rather in Trinitarian terms of the Godhead initiating and carrying out the Atonement, motivated by a desire to save humanity. Thus the key distinction of penal substitution is the idea that restitution is made through punishment.
 
John Stott has stressed that this must be understood not as the Son placating the Father, but rather in Trinitarian terms of the Godhead initiating and carrying out the Atonement, motivated by a desire to save humanity. Thus the key distinction of penal substitution is the idea that restitution is made through punishment.
  
Hence, for Calvin, one is saved by becoming united to Christ through faith.<ref>Ibid., III.i - ii</ref> At the point of becoming united with Christ through faith, one receives all the benefits of the atonement. However, because Christ paid for sins when he died, it is not possible for those for whom he died to ''fail'' to receive the benefits: the saved are ''predestined'' to believe.
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Hence, for Calvin, one is saved by becoming united to Christ through faith.<ref>Calvin, III.i - ii</ref> At the point of becoming united with Christ through faith, one receives all the benefits of the atonement. However, because Christ paid for sins when he died, it is not possible for those for whom he died to ''fail'' to receive the benefits: the saved are ''predestined'' to believe.
  
 
=== Further Developments ===
 
=== Further Developments ===
[[Image:Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt - Hugo Grotius.jpg|left|thumb|Hugo Grotius]]
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[[Image:Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt - Hugo Grotius.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Hugo Grotius]]
  
 
Anselm's theory was vague enough that Thomas Aquinas' modifications have completely overshadowed it. Aquinas' theory is still official dogma within the Roman Catholic church, and it was affirmed at the [[Council of Trent]]. Calvin's development was affirmed at the [[Synod of Dort]] and is a part of the doctrinal positions of most [[Reformed]] denominations.
 
Anselm's theory was vague enough that Thomas Aquinas' modifications have completely overshadowed it. Aquinas' theory is still official dogma within the Roman Catholic church, and it was affirmed at the [[Council of Trent]]. Calvin's development was affirmed at the [[Synod of Dort]] and is a part of the doctrinal positions of most [[Reformed]] denominations.
  
The [[Atonement (Governmental view)|Governmental view of the atonement]], developed by [[Hugo Grotius]], was a modification of Calvin's view, although it represents in some ways a return to the general nature of Anselm's theory. According to Grotius, Christ death was an acceptable substitute for punishment, satisfying the demands of God's moral government. In this view, in contrast to Calvin, Christ did not specifically bear the penalty for humanity's sins; nor did he pay for individual sins. Instead, his suffering demonstrated God's displeasure with sin and what sin deserves at the hands of a just Governor of the universe, enabling God to extend forgiveness while maintaining divine order. The Governmental view is the basis for the salvation theories of Protestant denominations who stress freedom of the will as in [[Arminianism]].
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The [[Atonement (Governmental view)|Governmental view of the atonement]], developed by [[Hugo Grotius]], was a modification of Calvin's view, although it represents in some ways a return to the general nature of Anselm's theory. According to Grotius, Christ’s death was an acceptable substitute for punishment, satisfying the demands of God's moral government. In this view, in contrast to Calvin, Christ did not specifically bear the penalty for humanity's sins; nor did he pay for individual sins. Instead, his suffering demonstrated God's displeasure with sin and what sin deserves at the hands of a just Governor of the universe, enabling God to extend forgiveness while maintaining divine order. The Governmental view is the basis for the salvation theories of Protestant denominations who stress freedom of the will as in [[Arminianism]].
  
 
Other theories on the nature of Christ's atonement such as the [[Atonement (Moral influence view)|Moral Influence view]], originally formulated by [[Pierre Abélard]], can also be seen as opposed to the Substitutionary view.
 
Other theories on the nature of Christ's atonement such as the [[Atonement (Moral influence view)|Moral Influence view]], originally formulated by [[Pierre Abélard]], can also be seen as opposed to the Substitutionary view.
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==References==
 
==References==
*Anselm of Canterbury. "Cur Deus Homo?" In ''A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham,'' edited by Eugene R. Fairweather, 100-183. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1956.
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*Anselm of Canterbury. "Cur Deus Homo?" In ''A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham''. Edited by Eugene R. Fairweather. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1956.
*Aulén, Gustaf. ''Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement,'' Translated by A. G. Hebert. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1978. ISBN 0020834004
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*Aulén, Gustaf. ''Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement''. Translated by A. G. Hebert. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1978. ISBN 0020834004
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*Calvin, John. ''The Institutes Of The Christian Religion''. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-1598561685
 
*Erickson, Millard J. ''Introducing Christian Doctrine,'' 2nd ed. Edited by L. Arnold Hustard. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2001. ISBN 0801022507
 
*Erickson, Millard J. ''Introducing Christian Doctrine,'' 2nd ed. Edited by L. Arnold Hustard. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2001. ISBN 0801022507
 
*McIntyre, John. ''The Shape of Soteriology.'' Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992. ISBN 0567096157
 
*McIntyre, John. ''The Shape of Soteriology.'' Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992. ISBN 0567096157
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==External links==
 
==External links==
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.toc.html John Calvin: "Institutes of the Christian Religions."] ''Christian Classic Ethereal Library''. Retrieved June 8, 2007.
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All links retrieved November 30, 2021.
* [http://www.theopedia.com/Atonement_of_Christ Theopedia: Atonement of Christ] Retrieved August 10, 2008.
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*[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.toc.html John Calvin, "Institutes of the Christian Religions"] ''Christian Classic Ethereal Library''.  
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[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]

Revision as of 19:31, 30 November 2021

Crucifixion of Christ by Pietro Perugino

In Christian theology, the satisfaction view of the atonement is the dominant theory of the meaning of the death of Jesus Christ taught in Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed circles since the Middle Ages. Theologically and historically, the word "satisfaction" does not mean gratification as in common usage, but rather "to make restitution," mending what has been broken, or paying back what was taken. It is thus connected with the legal concept of balancing out an injustice. Drawing primarily from the works of Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109 C.E.), the satisfaction theory teaches that Christ suffered as a substitute on behalf of humankind satisfying the demands of God's honor by his infinite merit. Anselm regarded his satisfaction view of the atonement as a distinct improvement over the older ransom theory of the atonement, which he saw as inadequate. Anselm's theory was a precursor to the refinements of Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin which introduced the idea of punishment to meet the demands of divine justice.

Development of the doctrine

The classic Anselmian formulation of the satisfaction view should be distinguished from penal substitution. Both are forms of satisfaction doctrine in that they speak of how Christ's death was satisfactory, but penal substitution and Anselmian satisfaction offer different understandings of how Christ's death was satisfactory. Anselm speaks of human sin as defrauding God of the honor he is due. Christ's death, the ultimate act of obedience, brings God great honor. As it was beyond the call of duty for Christ, it is more honor than he was obliged to give. Christ's surplus can therefore repay our deficit. Hence Christ's death is substitutionary; he pays the honor instead of us. Penal substitution differs in that it sees Christ's death not as repaying God for lost honor but rather paying the penalty of death that had always been the moral consequence for sin (e.g., Genesis 2:17; Romans 6:23). The key difference here is that for Anselm, satisfaction is an alternative to punishment, "The honor taken away must be repaid, or punishment must follow."[1] By Christ satisfying our debt of honor to God, we avoid punishment. In Calvinist Penal Substitution, it is the punishment which satisfies the demands of justice.

Another distinction must be made between penal substitution (Christ punished instead of us) and substitutionary atonement (Christ suffers for us). Both affirm the substitutionary and vicarious nature of the atonement, but penal substitution offers a specific explanation as to what the suffering is for: punishment.

Anselm links the atonement and the incarnation

St. Anselm of Canterbury

Anselm of Canterbury first articulated the satisfaction view in his work, Cur Deus Homo?, whose title means "Why did God become a Man?." The then-current ransom theory of the atonement held that Jesus' death was paid as a ransom to Satan, allowing God to rescue those under Satan's bondage.[2] For Anselm, this solution was inadequate. Why should God the Son have to become a human to pay a ransom? Why should God owe anything at all to Satan?

Instead, Anselm suggested that we owe God a debt of honor: "This is the debt which man and angel owe to God, and no one who pays this debt commits sin; but every one who does not pay it sins. This is justice, or uprightness of will, which makes a being just or upright in heart, that is, in will; and this is the sole and complete debt of honor which we owe to God, and which God requires of us."[3] This debt creates essentially an imbalance in the moral universe; it could not be satisfied by God's simply ignoring it.[4] In Anselm's view, the only possible way of repaying the debt was for a being of infinite greatness, acting as a man on behalf of men, to repay the debt of honor owed to God.[5] Therefore, when Jesus died, he did not pay a debt to Satan but to God, His Father.

Anselm did not state specifically whether Jesus' payment of debt was for all of mankind as a group or for individual people, but his language leans in the former direction.[6] Thomas Aquinas' later developments specifically attribute the scope of the atonement to be universal in nature.

Thomas Aquinas codifies the substitution theory

St. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas elucidated the atonement in the Summa Theologica[7] into what is now the standard Catholic understanding of atonement. He explored the nature of sin, debt, punishment, and grace. In his section on man, he considered whether punishment is good and appropriate, and he concluded that:

  1. punishment is a morally good response to sin,
  2. "Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins," and;
  3. substitution for another's sin is entirely possible.[8]

This is Aquinas' major difference with Anselm. Rather than seeing the debt as one of honor, he sees the debt as a moral injustice to be righted.

In his section on the Incarnation, Aquinas argues that Christ's death satisfies the penalty owed by sin,[9] and that it was Christ's Passion specifically that was needed to pay the debt of man's sin.[10] For Aquinas, the Passion of Jesus provided the merit needed to pay for sin: "Consequently Christ by His Passion merited salvation, not only for Himself, but likewise for all His members,"[11] and that the atonement consisted in Christ's giving to God more "than was required to compensate for the offense of the whole human race."[12] In this way, Aquinas articulated the formal beginning of the idea of a superabundance of merit, which became the basis for the Catholic concept of the Treasury of Merit (see Indulgences). Aquinas also articulated the ideas of salvation that are now standard within the Catholic church: that justifying grace is provided through the sacraments; that the condign merit of our actions is matched by Christ's merit from the Treasury of Merit; and that sins can be classified as mortal and venial. For Aquinas, one is saved by drawing on Christ's merit, which is provided through the sacraments of the church.

Aquinas' view may sound like penal substitution, but he is careful to say that he does not intend substitution to be taken in legal terms:

If we speak of that satisfactory punishment, which one takes upon oneself voluntarily, one may bear another's punishment…. If, however, we speak of punishment inflicted on account of sin, inasmuch as it is penal, then each one is punished for his own sin only, because the sinful act is something personal. But if we speak of a punishment that is medicinal, in this way it does happen that one is punished for another's sin."[13]

What he means by "satisfactory punishment," as opposed to punishment that is "penal," is essentially the Catholic idea of penance. Aquinas refers to the practice saying, "A satisfactory punishment is imposed upon penitents"[14] and defines this idea of "Satisfactory Punishment" (penance) as a compensation of self-inflicted pain in equal measure to the pleasure derived from the sin. "Punishment may equal the pleasure contained in a sin committed."[15]

Aquinas sees penance as having two functions. First to pay a debt, and second "to serve as a remedy for the avoidance of sin." In this later case, he says that "as a remedy against future sin, the satisfaction of one does not profit another, for the flesh of one man is not tamed by another's fast" and again "one man is not freed from guilt by another's contrition."[16] Since according to Aquinas "Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins."[17] The penance Christ did has its effect in paying the "debt of punishment" incurred by our sin.

This concept is similar to Anselm's view that we owe a debt of honor to God, with a critical difference: While Anselm said we could never pay this debt because any good we could do was owed to God anyway, Aquinas said we could make up for our debt through acts of penance. Unlike Anselm, Aquinas claimed that we can make satisfaction for our own sin, and that our problem is not our personal sin, but original sin. As Aquinas said, "original sin... is an infection of human nature itself, so that, unlike actual sin, it could not be expiated by the satisfaction of a mere man."[15] Thus Christ, as the "second Adam" (1 Cor. 15:45), does penance in our place—paying the debt of our original sin.

Calvin attributes atonement to individuals

John Calvin (1509–1564)

John Calvin (d. 1564 C.E.) was the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation. As such, he wanted to solve the problem of Christ's atonement in a way that did justice to the Scriptures and Church Fathers, while still rejecting the need for condign merit.[18] His solution was that Christ's death on the cross paid not a general penalty for humanity's sins, but a specific penalty for the sins of individual people. That is, when Jesus died on the cross, his death paid the penalty at that time for the sins of all those who are saved.[19] One obviously necessary feature of this idea is that Christ's atonement is limited in its effect only to those whom God has chosen to be saved, since the debt for sins was paid at a particular point in time (at the crucifixion).

For Calvin, this also required drawing on Augustine's earlier theory of predestination.[20] Additionally, in rejecting the idea of penance, Calvin shifted from Aquinas' idea that satisfaction was penance (which focused on satisfaction as a change in humanity), to the idea of satisfying God's wrath. This ideological shift places the focus on a change in God, who is propitiated through Christ's death. The Calvinist understanding of the atonement and satisfaction is penal substitution: Christ is a substitute taking our punishment and thus satisfying the demands of justice and appeasing God's wrath so that God can justly show grace.

John Stott has stressed that this must be understood not as the Son placating the Father, but rather in Trinitarian terms of the Godhead initiating and carrying out the Atonement, motivated by a desire to save humanity. Thus the key distinction of penal substitution is the idea that restitution is made through punishment.

Hence, for Calvin, one is saved by becoming united to Christ through faith.[21] At the point of becoming united with Christ through faith, one receives all the benefits of the atonement. However, because Christ paid for sins when he died, it is not possible for those for whom he died to fail to receive the benefits: the saved are predestined to believe.

Further Developments

Hugo Grotius

Anselm's theory was vague enough that Thomas Aquinas' modifications have completely overshadowed it. Aquinas' theory is still official dogma within the Roman Catholic church, and it was affirmed at the Council of Trent. Calvin's development was affirmed at the Synod of Dort and is a part of the doctrinal positions of most Reformed denominations.

The Governmental view of the atonement, developed by Hugo Grotius, was a modification of Calvin's view, although it represents in some ways a return to the general nature of Anselm's theory. According to Grotius, Christ’s death was an acceptable substitute for punishment, satisfying the demands of God's moral government. In this view, in contrast to Calvin, Christ did not specifically bear the penalty for humanity's sins; nor did he pay for individual sins. Instead, his suffering demonstrated God's displeasure with sin and what sin deserves at the hands of a just Governor of the universe, enabling God to extend forgiveness while maintaining divine order. The Governmental view is the basis for the salvation theories of Protestant denominations who stress freedom of the will as in Arminianism.

Other theories on the nature of Christ's atonement such as the Moral Influence view, originally formulated by Pierre Abélard, can also be seen as opposed to the Substitutionary view.

Notes

  1. Anselm of Canterbury, Cur Deus Homo, Bk 1, Ch 8.
  2. Cur Deus Homo, I.vii.
  3. Cur Deus Homo, I.xi.
  4. Cur Deus Homo, I.xii.
  5. Cur Deus Homo, II.vi
  6. Cur Deus Homo, II.xiv.
  7. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  8. Of the Debt of Punishment (Eight Articles) Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  9. Whether it was fitting that Christ should die? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  10. The Passion of the Christ (Twelve Articles) Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  11. Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of merit? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  12. Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of atonement? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  13. Whether anyone is punished for another's sin? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  14. Whether men were freed from the punishment of sin through Christ's Passion? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  15. 15.0 15.1 Whether man can make satisfaction to God? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  16. Whether one man can fulfill satisfactory punishment for another? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  17. Whether every punishment is inflicted for a sin? Summa Theologica. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  18. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, III.iv.27, III.xiv and xv.
  19. Calvin, II.xii.3-5
  20. Calvin, III.xvii
  21. Calvin, III.i - ii

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Anselm of Canterbury. "Cur Deus Homo?" In A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham. Edited by Eugene R. Fairweather. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1956.
  • Aulén, Gustaf. Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement. Translated by A. G. Hebert. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1978. ISBN 0020834004
  • Calvin, John. The Institutes Of The Christian Religion. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-1598561685
  • Erickson, Millard J. Introducing Christian Doctrine, 2nd ed. Edited by L. Arnold Hustard. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2001. ISBN 0801022507
  • McIntyre, John. The Shape of Soteriology. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992. ISBN 0567096157
  • Sherman, Robert. King, Priest and Prophet: A Trinitarian Theology of Atonement. New York: T. & T. Clark, 2004. ISBN 0567025608
  • Weaver, J. Denny. The Nonviolent Atonement. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 2001. ISBN 0802849083

External links

All links retrieved November 30, 2021.

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