Difference between revisions of "Astarte" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m
 
(21 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Started}}{{Claimed}}{{Contracted}}
+
{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
 +
[[Image:Dama de Galera (M.A.N. Madrid) 01.jpg|thumb|200px|A statuette discovered near [[Granada]] in [[Spain]] dating to the sixth or seventh century B.C.E. depicts ‘Ashtart sittng on a throne flanked by sphinxes holding a bowl beneath her breasts.]]
  
[[Image:As-Julia Maesa-Sidon AE30 BMC 300.jpg|thumb|160px|Astarte on a car with four branches protruding from roof. [[Julia Maesa]] coin from [[Sidon]].]]
+
'''Astarte''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] Αστάρτη—''Astártē'') was a major [[goddess]] as known from Northwestern [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] regions, closely related in name, origins, and functions with the goddess [[Ishtar]] in [[Mesopotamia]]n texts. Other renderings and [[transliteration]]s of her name include ''‘Ashtart,'' ''Ashtoreth,'' ''Atirat,'' and ''As-tar-tú,'' among others.  
 +
{{toc}}
 +
‘Ashtart was connected with the [[fertility]] of crops and cattle, [[human sexuality|sexuality]], and [[war]]. Her symbols were the lion, the horse, the [[sphinx]], the dove, and a star within a circle indicating the planet [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. Pictorial representations often show her naked. In the [[Ugart]]ic texts of [[Canaan]] she is closely associated with [[Ba'al]], the chief deity of the Canaanite pantheon during the period of the Israelite monarchy. In the Bible she is frequently mentioned as Ashtoreth, a Canaanite goddess whom the Israelites were much tempted to worship against [[God]]'s will.
  
'''Astarte''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] Αστάρτη (''Astártē'')) is the name of a major [[goddess]] as known from Northwestern [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] regions, closely related in name, originm and functions with the goddess [[Ishtar]] in [[Mesopotamia]]n texts. Other renderings and [[transliteration]]s of her name include ''‘Ashtart'', ''Ashtoreth'', ''Atirat'', and ''As-tar-tú'', among others.  
+
‘Ashtart was adopted by Egyptians, and later by the [[Greece|Greek]]s, who eventually gave her the name of [[Aphrodite]].
  
==General discussion==
+
==‘Ashtart Ugarit in Judea==  
‘Ashtart was connected with the [[fertility]] of crops and cattle, [[human sexuality|sexuality]], and [[war]]. Her symbols were the lion, the horse, the sphinx, the dove, and a star within a circle indicating the planet [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. Pictorial representations often show her naked.
 
  
‘Ashtart was accepted by the [[Greece|Greek]]s under the name of [[Aphrodite]]. The island of [[Cyprus]], one of ‘Ashtart's greatest faith centers, supplied the name Cypris as Aphrodite's most common byname.
+
‘Ashtart appears in [[Ugarit]]ic texts under the name ‘Athtart. Here, she ‘asks ''Ba‘al'' to "scatter" the sea-god ''[[Yamm]]'' after Ba‘al's successful rebellion against him. Earlier, ‘Athtart and her sister and [[Anat]] together restrain [[Baal|Ba‘al]] from attacking Yamm's messengers. She was known as "She of the Womb," and was thus a goddess of sexuality, and of the fertility of women and nature. Her other epithets include ‘Athtart of the Field, The Strong One, and Face of Ba‘al. Her name and functions are clearly related to the Mesopotamian goddess [[Ishtar]], who, like ‘Athtart, was associated with the planet [[Venus]]. She is sometimes depicted, like her sister Anat, as a war-goddess, robed in flames, armed with a sword and arrows. Acacia and cypress trees were sacred to her. She was the chief goddess of Tyre, Sidon and Byblos.  
  
Other major centers of ‘Ashtart's worship were [[Sidon]], [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], and [[Byblos]]. Coins from Sidon portray a chariot in which a globe appears, presumably a stone representing ‘Ashtart. In Sidon, she shared a temple with [[Eshmun]]. At [[Beirut]] coins show [[Poseidon]], Astarte, and Eshmun worshipped together.
+
[[File:Emile Jean Horace Vernet 001.jpg|200px|thumb|The Jewish matriarch Tamar: disguised as a priestess of 'Astarte?]]
  
Other faith centers were [[Cytherea]], [[Malta]] and [[Eryx]] in [[Sicily]] from which she became known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] as [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] Erycina. A bilingual inscription on the [[Pyrgi Tablets]] dating to about 500 B.C.E. found near [[Caere]] in [[Etruria]] equates ‘Ashtart with [[Etruscan]] Uni-Astre, that is [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]]. At [[Carthage]] ‘Ashtart was worshiped alongside the goddess [[Tanit]].
+
'''Astarte''' in the Bible was one of the Canaanite deities whom the Israelites must abhor. '''Astarte''', or '''''Ashtoret''''' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], was the principal [[goddess]] of the [[Phoenicia]]ns, representing the productive power of nature. Her worship was fairly widespread in Israel, and she may have been seen as the female counterpart of consort of the Israelite god [[Yahweh]], as well as of Ba'al, with whom Yahweh could easily have been confused in the popular imagination. Genesis 49:25 preserves an ancient blessing that may have once been associated with Astarte or [[Ashera]]:
[[Image:Dama de Galera (M.A.N. Madrid) 01.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Dama de Galera''.]]
 
  
A statuette of ‘Ashtart from Tutugi (Galera) near [[Granada]] in [[Spain]] dating to the sixth of seventh century B.C.E. despicts ‘Ashtart sittng on a throne flanked by sphinxes holding a bowl beneath her breasts, the nipples of which are pieced. A hollow in the statue would have been filled with milk through the head and gentle heating would have melted wax plugging the holes, producing an apparent miracle.
+
<blockquote>The Almighty ([[Shaddai]])… blesses you with blessings of the heavens above, blessings of the deep that lies below, blessings of the breast and womb.</blockquote>
  
The [[Syrian]] goddess [[Atargatis]] (Semitic form ''‘Atar‘atah'') was generally equated with ‘Ashtart.
+
In some cases Astarte was associated with sacred prostitution, as is also the case with [[Ishtar]]. In the [[Book of Genesis]], the Jewish patriarch Judah is portrayed as having sexual intercourse with his daughter-in-law Tamar, who has disguised herself as a sacred prostitute—most probably of Astarte—at the town of Timnath; and from this union the lineage of Judah is perpetuated.
==‘Ashtart Ugarit in Judea==
 
'''Astarte''' in the Bible was one of the Canaanite gods whom the Israelites must abhor.  
 
  
‘Ashtart appears in [[Ugarit]]ic texts under the name ‘Athtart. Here, she and her sister and [[`Anat|‘Anat]] together hold back [[Baal|Ba‘al]] from attacking the other gods. ‘Ashtart also asks ''Ba‘al'' to "scatter" the sea-god ''Yamm''  after Ba‘al's victory. ‘Athtart is also called the "face of Ba‘al."
+
The biblical writers speak against Astarte frequently, citing Israelite worship of her as the cause of God's abandonment of His people during the period of judges:
  
'''Astarte''', or '''''Ashtoret''''' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], was the principal [[goddess]] of the [[Phoenicia]]ns, representing the productive power of nature. She was a [[lunar goddess]] and was adopted by the [[Egypt]]ians as a daughter of [[Ra]] or [[Ptah]].  
+
<blockquote>They forsook [[Yahweh|the Lord]], the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of [[Egypt]]. They followed and worshiped various gods of the peoples around them. They provoked the Lord to anger because they forsook him and served [[Baal]] and the Ashtoreths. In his anger against Israel the Lord handed them over to raiders who plundered them. (Judges 2:12-14)</blockquote>
  
In [[Jewish mythology]], She is referred to as ''Ashtoreth'', supposedly interpreted as a female demon of lust in Hebrew monotheism. The name '''[[Asherah]]''' may also be confused with Ashtoreth, but is probably a different Goddess.
+
1 Samuel 12:10 depicts the Israelites as repenting for serving "The Baals and the Ashtoreths." The head of the dead King Saul was placed by the Philistines in the "temple of the Ashtoreths" (1 Samuel 31:10). King [[Solomon]]'s fall from grace is blamed on his worship of Ashtoreth (1 Kings 11:4-6).
  
The Masoretic (<small>''from "Masorah," which is a body of scribal notes that form a textual guide to the Hebrew Old Testament, compiled from the 7th to 10th centuries CE''</small>) pointing in the Hebrew [[Tanach]] (bible) indicate the pronunciation as  ''‘Aštōret'' instead of the expected ''‘Ašteret'', probably because the two last syllables have here been pointed with the vowels belonging to ''bōshet'' "abomination" to indicate that word should be substituted when reading. The plural form is pointed '''‘Aštārōt'''.
+
Astarte may also be the "[[Queen of Heaven]]" spoken of by the prophet [[Jeremiah]] several centuries later during the seventh or early sixth century B.C.E. Here, the people of Judah fear that by heeding the words of the [[prophet]]s and abandoning the worship of the goddess, they have brought ruin upon themselves:
  
For what seems to be the use of the Hebrew plural form ''‘Aštārōt'' as the name of a demon, see also [[Astaroth]].
+
<blockquote>Ever since we stopped burning incense to the [[Queen of Heaven]] and pouring out drink offerings to her, we have had nothing and have been perishing by sword and famine. (Jeremiah 44:18)</blockquote>
  
In Judaized Christian demonology, Ashtoreth is connected to Friday, and visually represented as a young woman with a cow's horns on her head (sometimes with a cow's tail too).
+
Jeremiah describes her worship as a family affair: "The children gather wood, the fathers light the fire, and the women knead the dough and make cakes of bread for the Queen of Heaven." (Jeremiah 7:18) Archaeologists report finding small statuettes of a goddess, possible Astarte, in many homes through Israel and Judah during Jeremiah's time and earlier. (Dever, 2005)
  
 +
[[Image:As-Julia Maesa-Sidon AE30 BMC 300.jpg|thumb|200px|A Sidonian coin depicts Astarte on a cart with four branches protruding from the roof.]]
 +
 +
The Bible also reports a campaign by King [[Josiah]], who reigned during the early part of Jeremiah's ministry, to rid the country of Astarte worship:
 +
 +
<blockquote>The king also desecrated the [[high places]] that were east of Jerusalem on the south of the Hill of Corruption—-the ones [[Solomon]] king of Israel had built for Ashtoreth the vile goddess of the [[Sidon]]ians, for [[Chemosh]] the vile god of [[Moab]], and for [[Molech]] the detestable god of the people of [[Ammon]]. Josiah smashed the sacred stones and cut down the [[Asherah]] poles and covered the sites with human bones. (2 Kings 23:13-14)</blockquote>
 +
 +
===Later attitudes===
 +
The Masoretic rendering of the [[Hebrew Bible]] indicates the pronunciation as ''‘Aštōret,'' probably because the two last syllables have here been pointed with the vowels belonging to ''bōshet''—"abomination"—to indicate that word should be substituted when reading. The plural form is pointed '''‘Aštārōt'''.
 +
 +
In later [[Jewish mythology]], ''Ashtoreth'' is interpreted as a female demon of lust. The name '''[[Asherah]]''' may also be confused with Ashtoreth. In addition "the ashtoreths" may refer to goddesses in general, and "the asherim" often refer to sacred pillars (or trees) erected next to Israelite altars.
 +
 +
In Christian demonology, Ashtoreth is connected to Friday, and visually represented as a young woman with a cow's horns on her head.
  
 
==‘Ashtart in Egypt==
 
==‘Ashtart in Egypt==
  
‘Ashtart first appears in [[Ancient Egypt]] beginning with the reign of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt]] along with other deities who were worshipped by northwest Semitic people. She was especially worshipped in her aspect of a war goddess, often paired with the goddess [[Anat]].
+
‘Ashtart first appears in [[Ancient Egypt]] beginning with the reign of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt]] along with other deities who were worshiped by northwest semitic people. She was a [[lunar goddess]] adopted by the [[Egypt]]ians as a daughter of [[Ra]] or [[Ptah]]. She was especially worshiped in her aspect as a war goddess, often paired with the semitic goddess [[Anat]]. In the ''Contest Between Horus and Set,'' these two goddesses appear as daughters of Re and are given in marriage to the god [[Set (mythology)|Set]], here identified with the Semitic name [[Hadad]].
  
In the ''Contest Between Horus and Set'', these two goddesses appear as daughters of [[Ra|Re]] and are given in marriage to the god [[Set (mythology)|Set]], here identified with the Semitic name [[Hadad]]. ‘Ashtart was also identified with the goddess [[Sekhmet]] but seemingly more often conflated, at least in part, with [[Isis]] to judge from the many images found of ‘Ashtart suckling a small child. Indeed there is a statue of the [[6th century B.C.E.]]E in the [[Cairo]] Museum, which would normally be taken as portraying Isis with her child [[Horus]] on her knee and which in every detail of iconography follows normal Egyptian conventions but the dedicatory inscription reads: "Gersaphon, son of Azor, son of Slrt, man of Lydda, for his Lady, for ‘Ashtart." See G.&nbsp;Daressy, (1905) pl. LXI (CGC 39291).
+
‘Ashtart was often conflated, at least in part, with [[Isis]] to judge from the many images found of ‘Ashtart suckling a small child. Indeed there is a statue of the sixth century B.C.E. in the [[Cairo]] Museum, which would normally be taken as portraying Isis with her child [[Horus]] on her knee and which in every detail of iconography follows normal Egyptian conventions but the dedicatory inscription reads: "Gersaphon, son of Azor, son of Slrt, man of Lydda, for his Lady, for ‘Ashtart." (See G.&nbsp;Daressy, (1905) pl. LXI (CGC 39291).)
  
[[Plutarch]], in his ''On Isis and Osiris'', indicates that the King and Queen of Byblos, who unknowingly have the Osiris' body in a pillar in their hall, are ''Melcarthus'' (ie. [[Melqart]]) and Astarte (though he notes some instead call the Queen ''Saosis'' or ''Nemanūs'', which Plutarch interprets as corresponding to the Greek name ''Athenais'').
+
==‘Ashtart in Sanchuniathon==
 +
In the description of the [[Phoenicia]]n pantheon ascribed to [[Sanchuniathon]] by the fourth century C.E. Christian bishop [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], ‘Ashtart appears as a daughter of Sky and Earth and sister of the semitic god [[El]]. After El overthrows and banishes his father Sky, the older deity sends to El his "virgin daughter" ‘Ashtart, intending a trick, along with her sisters [[Asherah]] and the goddess who will later be called [[Baalat Gebul|Ba‘alat Gebul]], "the Lady of Byblos." It seems that this trick does not work as all three become wives of their brother El. ‘Ashtart bears seven daughters to El who appear under Greek names as the ''[[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]ides'' or ''[[Artemis|Artemides]].'' She also bears two sons named ''Pothos,'' "Longing" and ''[[Eros (mythology)|Eros]],'' "Desire."
  
==‘Ashtart described by Sanchuniathon==
+
Later, with El's consent, ‘Ashtart and [[Hadad]] (equivalent to Baal in Canaanite mythology) reign over the land together. ‘Ashtart, puts the head of a bull on her own head to symbolize her sovereignty. Wandering through the world ‘Ashtart takes up a star that has fallen from the sky and consecrates it at Tyre.
In the description of the [[Phoenicia]]n pantheon ascribed to [[Sanchuniathon]] ‘Ashtart appears as a daughter of Sky and Earth and sister of the God [[El (god)|El]]. After El overthrows and banishes his father Sky, Sky sends to El as some kind of trick his "virgin daughter" ‘Ashtart along with her sisters [[Asherah]] and the goddess who will later be called [[Baalat Gebul|Ba‘alat Gebul]] "the Lady of Byblos." It seems that this trick does not work as all three become wives of their brother El. ‘Ashtart bears to El children who appear under Greek names as seven daughters called the ''[[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]ides'' or ''[[Artemis|Artemides]]'' and two sons named ''Pothos'' "Longing" and ''[[Eros (mythology)|Eros]]'' "Desire."
 
 
 
Later we see, with El's consent, ‘Ashtart and Hadad reigning over the land together. ‘Ashtart, puts the head of a bull on her own head to symbolize Her sovereignty. Wandering through the world ‘Ashtart takes up a star that has fallen from the sky and consecrates it at Tyre.
 
  
 
==Other associations==
 
==Other associations==
There is a serious basis for the opinion that the Greek Goddess [[Aphrodite]] (especially Aphrodite Erycina) is just another name for Astarte. [[Herodotus]] wrote that the religious community of Aphrodite originated in [[Phoenicia]] and came to Greeks from there. He also wrote about the world's largest temple of Aphrodite, in one of the Phoenician cities.
+
Many scholars see a basis for the opinion that the Greek name [[Aphrodite]] (especially Aphrodite Erycina) is another term for Astarte. [[Herodotus]] wrote that the religious community of Aphrodite originated in [[Phoenicia]] and came to the Greeks from there. He also wrote about the world's largest temple of Aphrodite, in one of the Phoenician cities.
 
 
Connection to planet Venus is another similarity to the Aphrodite religious community, apparently from the Mesopotamian Goddess Ishtar. Doves sacrificed is another.
 
  
Her name is the second name in an energy chant sometimes used in [[Wicca]]: "[[Isis]], Astarte, [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]], [[Hecate]], [[Demeter]], [[Kali]], [[Inanna]]."
+
[[Image:SaintQuiteria.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Saint Quiteria is named for ''Kyteria,'' a Phoenician title of Astarte.]]
 +
Other major centers of ‘Ashtart's worship were [[Sidon]], [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], and [[Byblos]]. Coins from Sidon portray a chariot in which a globe appears, presumably a stone representing ‘Ashtart. At [[Beirut]] coins show [[Poseidon]], Astarte, and Eshmun worshiped together. Connection to planet [[Venus]] is another similarity to the Aphrodite religious community, apparently from the Mesopotamian Goddess Ishtar. Doves being sacrificed to her is another.
  
[[Saint Quiteria]], a popular Christian saint, may have not been a saint at all. Her name may refer to title that the [[Phoenicians]] gave to the goddess Astarte: ''Kythere, Kyteria'', or ''Kuteria'', which means "the red one."[http://www.portcult.com/OPS_10.htm]
+
Other places of her worship included [[Malta]] and [[Eryx]] in [[Sicily]], from where she became known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] as [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] Erycina. A bilingual inscription on the [[Pyrgi Tablets]] dating to about 500 B.C.E. found near [[Caere]] in [[Etruria]] equates ‘Ashtart with [[Etruscan]] Uni-Astre, that is [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]]. At [[Carthage]] ‘Ashtart was worshiped alongside the goddess [[Tanit]]. The [[Syrian]] goddess [[Atargatis]] (Semitic form ''‘Atar‘atah'') was generally equated with ‘Ashtart.
  
==Astarte in fiction==
+
In the Christian tradition [[Saint Quiteria]] may have originated from a title that the [[Phoenicians]] gave to the goddess Astarte: ''Kythere, Kyteria,'' or ''Kuteria,'' which means "the red one." Some believe the saint, represented in icons dressed in red, may be nothing more than a Christianized version of Astarte. Christian tradition holds that she was merely named for the goddess by her pagan father.
*In the MMO computer game ''[[EVE Online]] ''there is a class of field command ship named after Astarte.
 
*In Kaori Yuki's ''[[Angel Sanctuary]]'', Astarte is the twin-sister of Astaroth and seemingly possessed with getting pregnant.
 
*In Neil Gaiman's ''[[The Sandman (comic book series)|The Sandman]]'', Astarte (called Ishtar in the comic book) was once an ex-girlfriend of Destruction
 
*In the [[Tom Robbins]] novel ''[[Skinny Legs and All]]'' Astarte is discussed in reference to the Judeo-Christian roots of patriarchy in Western society, and the subsequent loss of worship to the power of the feminine.
 
*In ''[[Yami no Matsuei]]'', Ashtaroth, (Christian demon) a leader of an army of demons, is never seen but mentioned by Sagantanus (apparently second-in-command).
 
*In Douglas Rushkoff and Liam Sharp's ''[[Testament (comics)|Testament]]'', Astarte is one of the characters that exist outside of the panels in the so-called "God Time."
 
* In [[Robert A. Heinlein|Robert A. Heinlein's]] story "[[Space Cadet]]," the first space ship to travel to [[Venus]] was named Astarte.
 
* In the [[Warhammer 40,000]] universe, the [[Space Marines (Warhammer 40,000)|Space Marines]] are known as the 'Adeptus Astartes'.
 
* In [[Castlevania: Portrait of Ruin]], Astarte is a boss in the Sandy Grave area (which is modeled after an Egyptian pyramid). She is described to possess irresistible beauty that no man can defy her, proven by her ability to charm the male hero of the game (Jonathan) to fight against his female companion (Charlotte).
 
* In the [[World of Darkness]] by [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf]] Games, Astarte is a powerful full-blooded [[fairy|fey]] who commands the Midnight Circus with two other counterparts. The circus is an infamous and malicious presence in that world, but Astarte's alignment, for good or ill, is often vague.
 
* In "Lilith" by George MacDonald, Astarte is a panther messenger serving Mara, the Lady of Sorrows. (Chap. 15)
 
* in Lord Byron's [[Manfred]], Astarte is the dead lover/sister of Manfred, a sorcerer with superhuman powers.  He feels guilty over her death, but did not kill her:  "Not with my hand, but heart —which broke her heart; / it gazed on mine and withered" (2.2.119-20).  Her Phantom is summoned and appears to Manfred, but does not give him the answers he's looking for.
 
* in the video game [[Alone in the Dark 1]], a rich cotton plantation owner names his mansion Derceto, because it "reminds him of Astarte."
 
* In the video game [[Giten Megami Tensei]], the character Astaroth is obsessed with becoming his old self, Astarte.
 
*In John Milton's epic poem [[Paradise Lost]], Astarte is one of the fallen angels mentioned in the second book. Though not the angel's true name, it is the name that mankind will give her after the fall.
 
* The Joffrey Ballet of NYC did a multimedia Ballet called Astarte in the mid 1960's
 
* In August Wilson's plays "Gem of the Ocean" (2003) and "Two Trains Running" (1990) - part of his Pittsburgh cycle - Aunt Ester, an oracular black woman two and a half centuries old, living in Pittsburgh, would seem to be an avatar of the goddess.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
* Harden, Donald . ''The Phoenicians''. 2nd ed., revised, London, Penguin 1980. ISBN 0-14-021375-9
+
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=2005&letter=A&search=astarte Ashtoreth] in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 24, 2016.
* Daressy, G.  ''Statues de divinités'', vol. II. Cairo, Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 1905.  
+
* Campbell, Joseph, ''Occidental Mythology: The Masks of God, Volume III'', Penguin Reissue edition 1991. ISBN 014019441X
 +
* Cross, Frank Moore. ''Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic''. Harvard University Press 1973. ISBN 978-0674091764
 +
* Daressy, G.  ''Statues de divinités,'' vol. II. Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 1905.  
 +
* Day, John.  ''Yahweh & the Gods & Goddesses of Canaan.'' Sheffield Academic Press, 2000. ISBN 1850759863
 +
* Dever, William G., ''Did God Have A Wife? Archeology And Folk Religion In Ancient Israel,'' William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0802828523
 +
* Gibson, J. C. L. ''Canaanite Myths and Legends,'' T. & T. Clark: Released  2000. ISBN 0567023516
 +
* Harden, Donald. ''The Phoenicians,'' 2nd ed., revised, London: Penguin, 1980. ISBN 0140213759
 +
* Shadrach, Nineveh. ''Codex of Love: Reflections From The Heart of Ishtar,'' Ishtar Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0973593113
 +
* Wyatt, N. ''Religious Texts from Ugarit,'' Sheffield Academic Press, Revised edition, 2003. ISBN 978-0826460486
  
==External links==
 
* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S35.html Bartleby: American Heritage Dictionary: Semitic roots]
 
  
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
{{Credit|126995657}}
 
{{Credit|126995657}}

Latest revision as of 09:40, 16 June 2019

A statuette discovered near Granada in Spain dating to the sixth or seventh century B.C.E. depicts ‘Ashtart sittng on a throne flanked by sphinxes holding a bowl beneath her breasts.

Astarte (from Greek Αστάρτη—Astártē) was a major goddess as known from Northwestern Semitic regions, closely related in name, origins, and functions with the goddess Ishtar in Mesopotamian texts. Other renderings and transliterations of her name include ‘Ashtart, Ashtoreth, Atirat, and As-tar-tú, among others.

‘Ashtart was connected with the fertility of crops and cattle, sexuality, and war. Her symbols were the lion, the horse, the sphinx, the dove, and a star within a circle indicating the planet Venus. Pictorial representations often show her naked. In the Ugartic texts of Canaan she is closely associated with Ba'al, the chief deity of the Canaanite pantheon during the period of the Israelite monarchy. In the Bible she is frequently mentioned as Ashtoreth, a Canaanite goddess whom the Israelites were much tempted to worship against God's will.

‘Ashtart was adopted by Egyptians, and later by the Greeks, who eventually gave her the name of Aphrodite.

‘Ashtart Ugarit in Judea

‘Ashtart appears in Ugaritic texts under the name ‘Athtart. Here, she ‘asks Ba‘al to "scatter" the sea-god Yamm after Ba‘al's successful rebellion against him. Earlier, ‘Athtart and her sister and Anat together restrain Ba‘al from attacking Yamm's messengers. She was known as "She of the Womb," and was thus a goddess of sexuality, and of the fertility of women and nature. Her other epithets include ‘Athtart of the Field, The Strong One, and Face of Ba‘al. Her name and functions are clearly related to the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar, who, like ‘Athtart, was associated with the planet Venus. She is sometimes depicted, like her sister Anat, as a war-goddess, robed in flames, armed with a sword and arrows. Acacia and cypress trees were sacred to her. She was the chief goddess of Tyre, Sidon and Byblos.

The Jewish matriarch Tamar: disguised as a priestess of 'Astarte?

Astarte in the Bible was one of the Canaanite deities whom the Israelites must abhor. Astarte, or Ashtoret in Hebrew, was the principal goddess of the Phoenicians, representing the productive power of nature. Her worship was fairly widespread in Israel, and she may have been seen as the female counterpart of consort of the Israelite god Yahweh, as well as of Ba'al, with whom Yahweh could easily have been confused in the popular imagination. Genesis 49:25 preserves an ancient blessing that may have once been associated with Astarte or Ashera:

The Almighty (Shaddai)… blesses you with blessings of the heavens above, blessings of the deep that lies below, blessings of the breast and womb.

In some cases Astarte was associated with sacred prostitution, as is also the case with Ishtar. In the Book of Genesis, the Jewish patriarch Judah is portrayed as having sexual intercourse with his daughter-in-law Tamar, who has disguised herself as a sacred prostitute—most probably of Astarte—at the town of Timnath; and from this union the lineage of Judah is perpetuated.

The biblical writers speak against Astarte frequently, citing Israelite worship of her as the cause of God's abandonment of His people during the period of judges:

They forsook the Lord, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of Egypt. They followed and worshiped various gods of the peoples around them. They provoked the Lord to anger because they forsook him and served Baal and the Ashtoreths. In his anger against Israel the Lord handed them over to raiders who plundered them. (Judges 2:12-14)

1 Samuel 12:10 depicts the Israelites as repenting for serving "The Baals and the Ashtoreths." The head of the dead King Saul was placed by the Philistines in the "temple of the Ashtoreths" (1 Samuel 31:10). King Solomon's fall from grace is blamed on his worship of Ashtoreth (1 Kings 11:4-6).

Astarte may also be the "Queen of Heaven" spoken of by the prophet Jeremiah several centuries later during the seventh or early sixth century B.C.E. Here, the people of Judah fear that by heeding the words of the prophets and abandoning the worship of the goddess, they have brought ruin upon themselves:

Ever since we stopped burning incense to the Queen of Heaven and pouring out drink offerings to her, we have had nothing and have been perishing by sword and famine. (Jeremiah 44:18)

Jeremiah describes her worship as a family affair: "The children gather wood, the fathers light the fire, and the women knead the dough and make cakes of bread for the Queen of Heaven." (Jeremiah 7:18) Archaeologists report finding small statuettes of a goddess, possible Astarte, in many homes through Israel and Judah during Jeremiah's time and earlier. (Dever, 2005)

A Sidonian coin depicts Astarte on a cart with four branches protruding from the roof.

The Bible also reports a campaign by King Josiah, who reigned during the early part of Jeremiah's ministry, to rid the country of Astarte worship:

The king also desecrated the high places that were east of Jerusalem on the south of the Hill of Corruption—-the ones Solomon king of Israel had built for Ashtoreth the vile goddess of the Sidonians, for Chemosh the vile god of Moab, and for Molech the detestable god of the people of Ammon. Josiah smashed the sacred stones and cut down the Asherah poles and covered the sites with human bones. (2 Kings 23:13-14)

Later attitudes

The Masoretic rendering of the Hebrew Bible indicates the pronunciation as ‘Aštōret, probably because the two last syllables have here been pointed with the vowels belonging to bōshet—"abomination"—to indicate that word should be substituted when reading. The plural form is pointed ‘Aštārōt.

In later Jewish mythology, Ashtoreth is interpreted as a female demon of lust. The name Asherah may also be confused with Ashtoreth. In addition "the ashtoreths" may refer to goddesses in general, and "the asherim" often refer to sacred pillars (or trees) erected next to Israelite altars.

In Christian demonology, Ashtoreth is connected to Friday, and visually represented as a young woman with a cow's horns on her head.

‘Ashtart in Egypt

‘Ashtart first appears in Ancient Egypt beginning with the reign of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt along with other deities who were worshiped by northwest semitic people. She was a lunar goddess adopted by the Egyptians as a daughter of Ra or Ptah. She was especially worshiped in her aspect as a war goddess, often paired with the semitic goddess Anat. In the Contest Between Horus and Set, these two goddesses appear as daughters of Re and are given in marriage to the god Set, here identified with the Semitic name Hadad.

‘Ashtart was often conflated, at least in part, with Isis to judge from the many images found of ‘Ashtart suckling a small child. Indeed there is a statue of the sixth century B.C.E. in the Cairo Museum, which would normally be taken as portraying Isis with her child Horus on her knee and which in every detail of iconography follows normal Egyptian conventions but the dedicatory inscription reads: "Gersaphon, son of Azor, son of Slrt, man of Lydda, for his Lady, for ‘Ashtart." (See G. Daressy, (1905) pl. LXI (CGC 39291).)

‘Ashtart in Sanchuniathon

In the description of the Phoenician pantheon ascribed to Sanchuniathon by the fourth century C.E. Christian bishop Eusebius of Caesarea, ‘Ashtart appears as a daughter of Sky and Earth and sister of the semitic god El. After El overthrows and banishes his father Sky, the older deity sends to El his "virgin daughter" ‘Ashtart, intending a trick, along with her sisters Asherah and the goddess who will later be called Ba‘alat Gebul, "the Lady of Byblos." It seems that this trick does not work as all three become wives of their brother El. ‘Ashtart bears seven daughters to El who appear under Greek names as the Titanides or Artemides. She also bears two sons named Pothos, "Longing" and Eros, "Desire."

Later, with El's consent, ‘Ashtart and Hadad (equivalent to Baal in Canaanite mythology) reign over the land together. ‘Ashtart, puts the head of a bull on her own head to symbolize her sovereignty. Wandering through the world ‘Ashtart takes up a star that has fallen from the sky and consecrates it at Tyre.

Other associations

Many scholars see a basis for the opinion that the Greek name Aphrodite (especially Aphrodite Erycina) is another term for Astarte. Herodotus wrote that the religious community of Aphrodite originated in Phoenicia and came to the Greeks from there. He also wrote about the world's largest temple of Aphrodite, in one of the Phoenician cities.

Saint Quiteria is named for Kyteria, a Phoenician title of Astarte.

Other major centers of ‘Ashtart's worship were Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos. Coins from Sidon portray a chariot in which a globe appears, presumably a stone representing ‘Ashtart. At Beirut coins show Poseidon, Astarte, and Eshmun worshiped together. Connection to planet Venus is another similarity to the Aphrodite religious community, apparently from the Mesopotamian Goddess Ishtar. Doves being sacrificed to her is another.

Other places of her worship included Malta and Eryx in Sicily, from where she became known to the Romans as Venus Erycina. A bilingual inscription on the Pyrgi Tablets dating to about 500 B.C.E. found near Caere in Etruria equates ‘Ashtart with Etruscan Uni-Astre, that is Juno. At Carthage ‘Ashtart was worshiped alongside the goddess Tanit. The Syrian goddess Atargatis (Semitic form ‘Atar‘atah) was generally equated with ‘Ashtart.

In the Christian tradition Saint Quiteria may have originated from a title that the Phoenicians gave to the goddess Astarte: Kythere, Kyteria, or Kuteria, which means "the red one." Some believe the saint, represented in icons dressed in red, may be nothing more than a Christianized version of Astarte. Christian tradition holds that she was merely named for the goddess by her pagan father.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ashtoreth in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 24, 2016.
  • Campbell, Joseph, Occidental Mythology: The Masks of God, Volume III, Penguin Reissue edition 1991. ISBN 014019441X
  • Cross, Frank Moore. Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Harvard University Press 1973. ISBN 978-0674091764
  • Daressy, G. Statues de divinités, vol. II. Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 1905.
  • Day, John. Yahweh & the Gods & Goddesses of Canaan. Sheffield Academic Press, 2000. ISBN 1850759863
  • Dever, William G., Did God Have A Wife? Archeology And Folk Religion In Ancient Israel, William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0802828523
  • Gibson, J. C. L. Canaanite Myths and Legends, T. & T. Clark: Released 2000. ISBN 0567023516
  • Harden, Donald. The Phoenicians, 2nd ed., revised, London: Penguin, 1980. ISBN 0140213759
  • Shadrach, Nineveh. Codex of Love: Reflections From The Heart of Ishtar, Ishtar Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0973593113
  • Wyatt, N. Religious Texts from Ugarit, Sheffield Academic Press, Revised edition, 2003. ISBN 978-0826460486

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.