Difference between revisions of "Applied ethics" - New World Encyclopedia

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Applied ethics is a field of [[ethics]], which deals with varieties of ethical questions in the contexts of professional, disciplinary, and practical fields. Its sub-field includes [[Medical ethics]], [[Bioethics]], [[Business ethics]], [[Legal ethics]], and others.  
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'''[[Applied ethics]] ''' is a field of [[ethics]] that deals with ethical questions specific to a professional, disciplinary, or practical field. Subsets of applied ethics include [[medical ethics]], [[bioethics]], [[business ethics]], [[legal ethics]], and others.  
  
Trends of [Analytic philosophy]] were split into two areas in the early twentieth century: logical analysis of languages and the studies of the history of philosophy. While many of them did not take the [[norm|normative]] or practical ethical questions as the central topic of philosophy, a number of ethical questions arose in  each professional or practical fields. Some philosophers responded these calls and developed philosophical theories and presented critical analysis in each field. When issues of [[Environmental ethics|environment]], [[abortion]], [[human cloning]], [[poverty]], [[human rights]], and others were increasingly becoming central issues of discussion in the latter half of twentieth century, applied ethics equally developed. It is one of the central fields of philosophy.
+
Many analytic philosophers did not focus on [[norm|normative]] or practical ethical questions during the early part of the twentieth century. However, throughout the century various issues such as pollution, [[human rights]] abuses, [[abortion]], [[human cloning]], [[poverty]], and others raised pressing ethical questions and applied ethics became an increasingly important field of philosophy.
  
Because of the complexity of each ethical issue, a philosopher often has to consider fundamental questions of [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], theories of [[human nature]] as well as ethics. Furthermore, the question often ranges over multiple disciplines and academic fields, philosophers collaborate with scholars from other fields.  
+
Because of the complexity of each ethical issue, a philosopher often has to also consider fundamental questions of [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], and theories of [[human nature]]; in addition, philosophers must collaborate with scholars from other fields.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
There are generally two approaches taken in applied ethics. The first is to apply ethical principles such as [[utilitarianism]] and [[deontological ethics]] to each issue or question; the second is to generate a situation-based discourse that uses multiple ethical theories.  
  
There are generally two approaches: attempt to apply ethical principles such as [[utilitarianism]] and [[Deontological ethics]] to each issue or question; develop situation based discourses by employing multiple ethical theories.  
+
==Challenges==
 +
===Ethics and other philosophical fields===
 +
Ethical questions in practical fields often lead to questions beyond ethics. For example, [[euthanasia]], an issue in [[medical ethics]], leads to questions regarding [[life]], [[death]], [[aging]], [[happiness]], suffering, and human existence. In the history of philosophy, however, philosophers have tried to establish ethical theories independent of other philosophical fields, particularly [[metaphysics]].  
  
 
+
To avoid stepping into unsettled disputes on fundamental philosophical questions outside of ethics, philosophers often attempt to find practical, agreeable, solutions. Some philosophers who take a case-based reasoning approach called [[casuistry]] set aside even ethical theories altogether in order to find a mutually agreeable, plausible, and practical solution.
==Challenges of Applied Ethics==
 
===Interdependency of ethics and other philosophical fields===
 
 
 
Ethical question in practical fields often leads to questions beyond ethics. For example, the question of [[euthanasia]], one of the questions in [[Medical ethics]], leads to the questions of the [[meaning of life]], [[death]], [[aging]], [[happiness]], suffering, and human existence. Seemingly simple ethical question is, in reality, deeply tied to a cluster of fundamental questions.
 
 
 
In the history of philosophy, however, philosophers tried to establish ethical theories independent of other philosophical fields, particularly [[metaphysics]]. They tried to find the fundamental principles of ethics which can be established by itself without recourse to metaphysical perspectives and beliefs.
 
 
 
The range and the scope each question of applied ethics it tided to, thus, often goes beyond that of traditional ethics. Philosophers, however, attempt to answer the question from the limited range of existing ethical theories. Furthermore, if a philosopher tries to deal with fundamental questions of philosophy outside of ethics, he or she is led to all kinds of unsettled questions and problems.  
 
  
 
===Interdisciplinary collaboration===
 
===Interdisciplinary collaboration===
 
+
Applied ethics requires knowledge of specific fields and, oftentimes, multiple fields. For example, in order to address the ethical questions concerning [[global warming]], a central issue in [[environmental ethics]], philosophers often have to consider social, economic, and political implications. Furthermore, applied ethics often require not only a theoretical analysis but also practical, feasible solutions. For this reason, a team of professionals from different disciplinary fields often collaborate as a team.  
Questions of applied ethics require knowledge of the field beyond philosophy. They often requires knowledge and perspectives ranging over multiple disciplinary fields. In answering questions of [[environmental ethics]], philosophers often have to consider social, economic, and political implications. Questions of applied ethics often require not only theoretical analysis but also practical, feasible solutions. For this reason, a team of professionals from different disciplinary fields collaborate as a team. Traditional non-collaborative research methodology is often inadequate and philosophers are asked to take collaborative research methodologies.
 
  
 
==Approaches==
 
==Approaches==
There are basically two approaches in applied [[ethics]]; approach ethical issues by applying the principles of ethical theories one accepts; attempt to develop situation based discourses without presupposing the validity of any ethical theory.
+
There are basically two approaches in applied [[ethics]]: one is to approach ethical issues by applying the principles of ethical theories, and the other is to develop situation based discourses without presupposing the validity of any ethical theory.
  
 
===Application of the principles of ethical theories===
 
===Application of the principles of ethical theories===
 +
The first approach is to find ways to apply the principles of ethical theories. Philosophers attempt to revise classic formulations of ethical principles in order to apply them to current ethical questions. Two major ethical theories that are used today are [[utilitarianism]] and [[deontological ethics]]; other ethical theories include [[virtue ethics]], such as [[Aristotelianism]], [[Confucianism]], and religion based ethical theories.
  
Two major theories of ethics today are [[utilitarianism]] and [[deontological ethics]]. Others are [[virtue ethics]] such as [[Aristotelianism]], [[Confucianism]], and religion based ethical theories.
+
This approach, however, has its own difficulty. Each ethical theory is established upon distinct principles and has a certain plausibility, yet no one theory can comprehensively cover all aspects of a problem; at the same time, combining different theories requires a tremendous mind and is nearly impossible.
 
 
The first approach is to find ways to apply the principles of one or more of these ethical theories. Philosophers attempt to revise classic formulation of ethical principles in order to make the applicable to current ethical questions. This approach contributes the development of classic ethical theories and allow us explore undiscovered possibilities of established theories.
 
 
 
This approach, however, has its own difficulty. Each ethical theory is established upon distinct principles and perspectives and has certain plausibility, yet no one theory can comprehensively cover all aspects of the problem. At the same time, establishing another theory which can synthesize existing theories is extremely difficult. A philosopher, who is taking this approach, usually holds one position, be utilitarian or deontological, and present his or her version to the problem at issue.
 
  
 
===Situation based approach===
 
===Situation based approach===
One modern approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism is [[case-based reasoning]], also known as [[casuistry]]. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and [[Stephen Toulmin]] (''The Abuse of Casuistry'' 1988), challenge the traditional [[paradigm]] of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on [[ideology]] or [[theory]]. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.
+
One modern approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism is [[case-based reasoning]], also known as [[casuistry]]. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and [[Stephen Toulmin]] (''The Abuse of Casuistry'', 1988), challenge the principle based [[paradigm]] of ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, for example, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on [[ideology]] or [[theory]]. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.
  
==Medical ethics and Bioethics==
+
==Major subfields==
'''Medical ethics''' is primarily a field of [[applied ethics]], the study of [[moral value]]s and judgments as they apply to [[medicine]]. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.
+
Applied ethics can be found in almost all kinds of professional fields or social practices. While [[medical ethics]], [[environmental ethics]], [[business ethics]], and [[legal ethics]] are major subfields, applied ethics is found in [[human rights]], [[war]], [[media]], [[communication]], [[sports]], academic research, [[publication]], and other areas.
  
Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as an applied professional ethics, whereas [[bioethics]] appears to have worked more expansive concerns, touching upon the [[philosophy of science]] and the critique of [[biotechnology]]. Still, the two fields often overlap and the distinction is more a matter of style than professional consensus.
+
===Business ethics===
 +
'''Business ethics''' examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment or economic activities.
  
Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of [[healthcare]] ethics, such as [[nursing ethics]].
+
In the increasingly conscience-focused marketplaces of the twenty-first century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as [[ethicism]]) is increasing. Simultaneously, pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws (e.g. higher UK road tax for higher-emission vehicles).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6095680.stm Miliband draws up green tax plan] BBC, October 30, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2008.</ref>
  
'''Bioethics''' is the philosophical study of the [[ethics|ethical]] controversies brought about by advances in [[biology]] and [[medicine]]. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among [[life sciences]], [[biotechnology]], [[medicine]], [[politics]], [[law]], [[philosophy]], and [[theology]].
+
Business ethics can be both a [[normative]] and a [[descriptive]] discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. In academia, descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings (e.g. ethics codes, social responsibility charters). In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations (e.g. [[BP]]'s "beyond petroleum" environmental tilt).
  
==Business ethics==
+
Business ethics also discusses ethical question in [[marketing]], [[accounting]], [[labor]] including [[child labor]] and abusive labor practices, [[human resource management]], political contributions, business acquisitions such as hostile take-overs, production, use of toxic material, intellectual property, information management including information leak, and others.
'''Business ethics''' is a form of [[applied ethics]] that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment.
 
  
In the increasingly conscience-focused marketplaces of the 21st century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as [[ethicism]]) is increasing.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-21|url=http://www.hero.ac.uk/uk/business/archives/2003/ethics_the_easy_way5043.cfm|title=Ethics the easy way|publisher=[[H.E.R.O. (Higher Education and Research Opportunities in the UK)|H.E.R.O.]]}}</ref> [[Simultaneously]], pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws (e.g. higher UK road tax for higher-emission vehicles).<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-05-21|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6095680.stm|title=Miliband draws up green tax plan|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=2006-10-30}}</ref>
+
===Legal ethics===
 +
Legal ethics refers to an [[ethical code]] governing the conduct of people engaged in the [[practice of law]]. In the [[United States]], for example, the [[American Bar Association]] has promulgated model rules that have been influential in many jurisdictions. The model rules address the ''client-lawyer relationship'', duties of a [[lawyer]] as ''advocate'' in adversary proceedings, dealings ''with persons other than clients'', ''[[law firms]] and associations'', ''public service'', ''advertising'', and ''maintaining the integrity of the profession''. Respect of client confidences, candor toward the tribunal, truthfulness in statements to others, and professional independence are some of the defining features of legal ethics.
  
Business ethics can be both a [[normative]] and a [[descriptive]] discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. In academia descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings (e.g. ethics codes, social responsibility charters). In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations (e.g. [[BP]]'s "beyond petroleum" environmental tilt).
+
American [[law school]]s are required to offer a course in [[professional responsibility]], which encompasses both legal ethics and matters of professionalism that do not present ethical concerns.
 
 
==Environmental ethics==
 
'''Environmental ethics''' is the part of [[environmental philosophy]] which considers the [[Ethics|ethical]] relationship between [[human beings]] and the [[natural environment]].  It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including [[Environmental law|law]], [[Environmental sociology|sociology]], [[Ecotheology|theology]], [[Ecological economics|economics]], [[ecology]] and [[Environmental geography|geography]].
 
 
 
Environmental ethics is properly but a sub-section of [[environmental philosophy]], which includes [[environmental aesthetics]], [[environmental theology]], and all the other branches of philosophical investigation (e.g., [[epistemology]], [[metaphysics]], [[philosophy of science]], etc).
 
  
==Legal ethics==
+
===Environmental ethics===
'''Legal ethics''' refers to an [[ethical code]] governing the conduct of people engaged in the [[practice of law]]. In the [[United States]], the [[American Bar Association]] has promulgated [http://www.abanet.org/cpr/mrpc/mrpc_toc.html model rules] that have been influential in many jurisdictions.  The model rules address the ''client-lawyer relationship'', duties of a [[lawyer]] as ''advocate'' in adversary proceedings, dealings ''with persons other than clients'', ''[[law firms]] and associations'', ''public service'', ''advertising'', and ''maintaining the integrity of the profession''.  Respect of client confidences, candor toward the tribunal, truthfulness in statements to others, and professional independence are some of the defining features of legal ethics.
+
Environmental ethics is the part of [[environmental philosophy]] which considers the [[Ethics|ethical]] relationship between [[human beings]] and the [[natural environment]]. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including [[Environmental law|law]], [[Environmental sociology|sociology]], [[Ecotheology|theology]], [[Ecological economics|economics]], [[ecology]] and [[Environmental geography|geography]].  
  
American [[law school]]s are required to offer a course in [[professional responsibility]], which encompasses both legal ethics and matters of professionalism that do not present ethical concerns.
+
Some of the main topics are [[global warming]], [[pollution]], and issues are closely tied to those of [[poverty]], [[sustainability]], and economic and social [[justice]]. Furthermore, since environmental problems often affect beyond the boundaries of nation-states, the issues are tied to the fields of [[international relations]] and global governance.
  
 +
===Medical ethics and Bioethics===
 +
Medical ethics deals with study of [[moral value]]s and judgments as they apply to [[medicine]]. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, [[philosophy]], [[theology]], and [[sociology]]. Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of [[healthcare]] ethics, such as nursing ethics.
  
 +
Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as an applied professional ethics, whereas [[bioethics]] appears to have worked more expansive concerns, touching upon the [[philosophy of science]] and the critique of [[biotechnology]] and [[life science]]. Still, the two fields often overlap and the distinction is more a matter of style than professional consensus. Some topics include [[abortion]], [[cloning]], [[euthanasia]], [[eugenics]], and others.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
Line 75: Line 66:
 
* [[Medical ethics]] / [[bioethics]]
 
* [[Medical ethics]] / [[bioethics]]
  
==Bibliography==
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==Notes==
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{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }}
 
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* {{cite book | first=R.F. | last=Chadwick | year=1997 | title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | location=London | publisher=Academic Press | id=ISBN 0-12-227065-7  | url= | authorlink= }}
 
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1993 | title=Practical Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Cambridge University Press| id=ISBN 0-521-43971-X | url= | authorlink= }} (monograph)
 
 
 
'''Anthologies'''
 
  
* {{cite book | first=Hugh | last=LaFollette | year=2002 | title=Ethics in Practice (2nd Edition) | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Blackwell Publishing| id=ISBN 0-631-22834-9 | url= | authorlink= }}
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==References==
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1986 | title=Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press| id=ISBN 0-19-875067-6 | url= | authorlink= }}
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* Chadwick, R.F. ''Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics''. London: Academic Press, 1997. ISBN 0122270657
* {{cite book | first=R.G. | last=Frey | year=2004 | title=A Companion to Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Blackwell | id=ISBN 1-4051-3345-7 | url= | authorlink= }}
+
* Singer, Peter. ''Practical Ethics''. Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 052143971X (monograph)
 +
* Frey, R.G. ''A Companion to Applied Ethics''. Blackwell, 2004. ISBN 1405133457
 +
* LaFollette, Hugh. ''Ethics in Practice'', 2nd ed. Blackwell Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0631228349
 +
* Singer, Peter. ''Applied Ethics''. Oxford University Press, 1986. ISBN 0198750676
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
'''General'''
+
All links retrieved October 31, 2021.
  
 
* [http://rockethics.psu.edu/ Rock Ethics Institute at Pennsylvania State University]
 
* [http://rockethics.psu.edu/ Rock Ethics Institute at Pennsylvania State University]
* [http://www.cappe.edu.au Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics at Australian National University, Charles Sturt University and University of Melbourne]
 
 
* [http://www.scu.edu/ethics Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University]
 
* [http://www.scu.edu/ethics Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University]
 
* [http://www.ethics.ubc.ca W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia]
 
* [http://www.ethics.ubc.ca W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia]
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~appe Association for Practical and Professional Ethics at the University of Indiana]
 
 
* Chris Young, [http://www.chrisyoung.net/writings/how-to-teach-intro-to-applied-ethics.html How to teach an introduction to applied ethics]
 
* Chris Young, [http://www.chrisyoung.net/writings/how-to-teach-intro-to-applied-ethics.html How to teach an introduction to applied ethics]
* [http://www.hospitalityethics.com HospitalityEthics.com ]
 
  
'''Journals'''
 
  
* [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ET/home.html Ethics] (since 1890)
+
===General Philosophy Sources===
* [http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/1382-4554/contents The Journal of Ethics]
+
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0264-3758 Journal of Applied Philosophy]
+
*[http://www.bu.edu/wcp/PaidArch.html Paideia Project Online]
* [http://www.pdcnet.org/ijap.html International Journal of Applied Philosophy]
+
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.aspcp.org/ijpp/html/contents.html International Journal of Philosophical Practice]
+
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/ Project Gutenberg]
[[Category:Applied ethics|*]]
 
[[Category:Ethics]]
 
  
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[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
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[[Category:Philosophy]]
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Revision as of 12:07, 31 October 2021

Ethics
Theoretical

Meta-ethics
Consequentialism / Deontology / Virtue ethics
Ethics of care
Good and evil | Morality

Applied

Medical ethics / Bioethics
Business ethics
Environmental ethics
Human rights / Animal rights
Legal ethics
Media ethics / Marketing ethics
Ethics of war

Core issues

Justice / Value
Right / Duty / Virtue
Equality / Freedom / Trust
Free will

Key thinkers

Aristotle / Confucius
Aquinas / Hume / Kant / Bentham / Mill / Nietzsche
Hare / Rawls / MacIntyre / Singer / Gilligan

Applied ethics is a field of ethics that deals with ethical questions specific to a professional, disciplinary, or practical field. Subsets of applied ethics include medical ethics, bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, and others.

Many analytic philosophers did not focus on normative or practical ethical questions during the early part of the twentieth century. However, throughout the century various issues such as pollution, human rights abuses, abortion, human cloning, poverty, and others raised pressing ethical questions and applied ethics became an increasingly important field of philosophy.

Because of the complexity of each ethical issue, a philosopher often has to also consider fundamental questions of metaphysics, epistemology, and theories of human nature; in addition, philosophers must collaborate with scholars from other fields.

There are generally two approaches taken in applied ethics. The first is to apply ethical principles such as utilitarianism and deontological ethics to each issue or question; the second is to generate a situation-based discourse that uses multiple ethical theories.

Challenges

Ethics and other philosophical fields

Ethical questions in practical fields often lead to questions beyond ethics. For example, euthanasia, an issue in medical ethics, leads to questions regarding life, death, aging, happiness, suffering, and human existence. In the history of philosophy, however, philosophers have tried to establish ethical theories independent of other philosophical fields, particularly metaphysics.

To avoid stepping into unsettled disputes on fundamental philosophical questions outside of ethics, philosophers often attempt to find practical, agreeable, solutions. Some philosophers who take a case-based reasoning approach called casuistry set aside even ethical theories altogether in order to find a mutually agreeable, plausible, and practical solution.

Interdisciplinary collaboration

Applied ethics requires knowledge of specific fields and, oftentimes, multiple fields. For example, in order to address the ethical questions concerning global warming, a central issue in environmental ethics, philosophers often have to consider social, economic, and political implications. Furthermore, applied ethics often require not only a theoretical analysis but also practical, feasible solutions. For this reason, a team of professionals from different disciplinary fields often collaborate as a team.

Approaches

There are basically two approaches in applied ethics: one is to approach ethical issues by applying the principles of ethical theories, and the other is to develop situation based discourses without presupposing the validity of any ethical theory.

Application of the principles of ethical theories

The first approach is to find ways to apply the principles of ethical theories. Philosophers attempt to revise classic formulations of ethical principles in order to apply them to current ethical questions. Two major ethical theories that are used today are utilitarianism and deontological ethics; other ethical theories include virtue ethics, such as Aristotelianism, Confucianism, and religion based ethical theories.

This approach, however, has its own difficulty. Each ethical theory is established upon distinct principles and has a certain plausibility, yet no one theory can comprehensively cover all aspects of a problem; at the same time, combining different theories requires a tremendous mind and is nearly impossible.

Situation based approach

One modern approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (The Abuse of Casuistry, 1988), challenge the principle based paradigm of ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, for example, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.

Major subfields

Applied ethics can be found in almost all kinds of professional fields or social practices. While medical ethics, environmental ethics, business ethics, and legal ethics are major subfields, applied ethics is found in human rights, war, media, communication, sports, academic research, publication, and other areas.

Business ethics

Business ethics examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment or economic activities.

In the increasingly conscience-focused marketplaces of the twenty-first century, the demand for more ethical business processes and actions (known as ethicism) is increasing. Simultaneously, pressure is applied on industry to improve business ethics through new public initiatives and laws (e.g. higher UK road tax for higher-emission vehicles).[1]

Business ethics can be both a normative and a descriptive discipline. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. In academia, descriptive approaches are also taken. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the degree to which business is perceived to be at odds with non-economic social values. Historically, interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings (e.g. ethics codes, social responsibility charters). In some cases, corporations have redefined their core values in the light of business ethical considerations (e.g. BP's "beyond petroleum" environmental tilt).

Business ethics also discusses ethical question in marketing, accounting, labor including child labor and abusive labor practices, human resource management, political contributions, business acquisitions such as hostile take-overs, production, use of toxic material, intellectual property, information management including information leak, and others.

Legal ethics

Legal ethics refers to an ethical code governing the conduct of people engaged in the practice of law. In the United States, for example, the American Bar Association has promulgated model rules that have been influential in many jurisdictions. The model rules address the client-lawyer relationship, duties of a lawyer as advocate in adversary proceedings, dealings with persons other than clients, law firms and associations, public service, advertising, and maintaining the integrity of the profession. Respect of client confidences, candor toward the tribunal, truthfulness in statements to others, and professional independence are some of the defining features of legal ethics.

American law schools are required to offer a course in professional responsibility, which encompasses both legal ethics and matters of professionalism that do not present ethical concerns.

Environmental ethics

Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics, ecology and geography.

Some of the main topics are global warming, pollution, and issues are closely tied to those of poverty, sustainability, and economic and social justice. Furthermore, since environmental problems often affect beyond the boundaries of nation-states, the issues are tied to the fields of international relations and global governance.

Medical ethics and Bioethics

Medical ethics deals with study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of healthcare ethics, such as nursing ethics.

Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as an applied professional ethics, whereas bioethics appears to have worked more expansive concerns, touching upon the philosophy of science and the critique of biotechnology and life science. Still, the two fields often overlap and the distinction is more a matter of style than professional consensus. Some topics include abortion, cloning, euthanasia, eugenics, and others.

See also

Notes

  1. Miliband draws up green tax plan BBC, October 30, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chadwick, R.F. Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics. London: Academic Press, 1997. ISBN 0122270657
  • Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics. Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 052143971X (monograph)
  • Frey, R.G. A Companion to Applied Ethics. Blackwell, 2004. ISBN 1405133457
  • LaFollette, Hugh. Ethics in Practice, 2nd ed. Blackwell Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0631228349
  • Singer, Peter. Applied Ethics. Oxford University Press, 1986. ISBN 0198750676

External links

All links retrieved October 31, 2021.


General Philosophy Sources

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