Analytical psychology

From New World Encyclopedia


Analytical psychology is part of the Jungian psychology movement started by Carl Jung and his followers, after his break with Freud. It is distinct from Freudian psychoanalysis. Analytical Psychology primarily explores how the collective unconscious, the part of consciousness that is cross-cultural and common to all human beings, influences personality. It is utilized not only for those with a mental disorder, but also for those who desire to promote their own psychological development and well-being.

Jungian psychology

Carl Jung's work, known as Jungian psychology, is central to Analytical psychology (the "Neopsychoanalytic school"). The goal of Analytical or Jungian psychology is to explore the unconscious, both personal and collective, and integrate the conscious and unconscious through a variety of disciplines and psychological methods. Jung believed the unconscious to be a great guide, friend and advisor of the conscious mind.

Jung's approach to psychology emphasized understanding the psyche through exploring the worlds of anthropology, astrology, alchemy, dreams, art, mythology, religion, and philosophy. Jung once said that just as a biologist needs the science of comparative anatomy, a psychologist needs the experience and knowledge of the products of unconscious activity and mythology.

Jung's goal was the reconciliation of the life of the individual with the world of the supra-personal archetypes. He came to see the individual's encounter with the unconscious as central to this process. We experience the unconscious through symbols encountered in all aspects of life: in dreams, art, religion, and the symbolic dramas we enact in our relationships and life pursuits. Essential to the encounter with the unconscious, and the reconciliation of the individual's consciousness with this broader world, is learning this symbolic language. A major tool used to communicate with the unconscious is through dream analysis. Dreams, in Analytical Psychology, are considered an integral, important, and personal expression of the individual's unconscious through symbols and archetypes.

Key Terms

The personal unconscious

Main article: Unconscious

Analytical psychology distinguishes between a personal and a collective unconscious. The basic assumption is that the personal unconscious is a potent part — probably the more active part — of the normal human psyche. Reliable communication between the conscious and unconscious parts of the psyche is necessary for happiness.

Also crucial is the belief that dreams show ideas, beliefs, and feelings of which individuals may not be readily aware, but need to be, and that such material is expressed in a personalized vocabulary of visual metaphors. Things "known but unknown" are contained in the unconscious, and dreams are one of the main vehicles for the unconscious to express them.

Collective unconscious

The term "Collective unconscious" was originally coined by Carl Jung. The collective unconscious refers to that part of a person's unconscious which is common to all human beings. Jung took on the task of exploring and attempting to discern the mysteries stored in the collective unconscious. He discovered that certain symbolic themes existed across all cultures, all epochs, and in every individual. Together these symbolic themes comprise "the archetypes of the collective unconscious.".

Archetypes

Main article: Archetype

Jung is best known for his term "archetype" which connotes a structural view of psychological life. The term archetype can be understood as quite similar to—and was probably directly influenced by—Kant's term "a priori." Jung often seemed to view the archetypes as sorts of psychological organs, directly analogous to our physical, bodily organs: both being morphological givens for the species; both arising at least partially through evolutionary processes. Current Jungian-influenced thinking has explored nearly diametrically opposing paths from Jung's structural thinking. Some have pursued deeply structural views, along the lines of complexity theory in mathematics, and some have tried to work with Jung's ideas in a seeming post-structuralist way (most obviously, James Hillman). Jung's work with mythology and archetypes was one of the most significant influences on mythologist Joseph Campbell. The key archetypes that Jung felt were especially important include : the persona, the shadow, the anima/animus, the mother, the child, the wise old man, and the self.

The self

Main article: Self

Perhaps the most important archetype to Jung would be what he termed the "self." It could be described as the ultimate pattern of psychological life; he characterized it as both the totality of the personality, conscious and unconscious, and the process of becoming of the whole personality. It could be described as both the goal of one's psychological life and that which pulls one toward it teleologically. Teleology is the belief in a purposeful develoment toward an end, as in nature or history.

We can better understand Jung's views of the self by looking at two other archetypal or structural views that were highly important to him: the idea of "the opposites" and his work describing many old, largely despised and forgotten alchemical texts. Jung saw these texts as valuable psychological treatises rather than dry descriptions of arcane magical practices.

The complex

Early in Jung's career he coined the term and described the concept of the "complex". Jung claims to have discovered the concept during his free association and galvanic skin response experiments. Freud obviously took up this concept in his Oedipus complex amongst others. Jung seemed to see complexes as quite autonomous parts of psychological life. A complex is an emotionally charged group of ideas or images. It is the architect of dreams and of symptoms; the building blocks of the psyche; and the source of all human emotions. A complex is also called a "feeling-toned idea" that accumulates over the years around certain archetypes, such as the mother, wise man, or child. Complexes operate relatively autonomously, interfere with the intentions of the will, disturb the memory and conscious performance. They can also be compared to the "splinter psyches" described by other psychopathologists, whose origin springs from a so-called trauma, an emotional shock for instance, that splits off a bit of the psyche. Jung stressed that complexes are not negative of themselves, but their effects often are. The possession of complexes does not in itself cause neurosis, but the denial of their existence causes the complex to become pathological. Likewise, identification with a complex is a frequent source of neurosis. The key in analysis is not to get rid of the complexes—but to minimize their negative effects by understanding the part they play in behavior patterns and emotional reactions.

Individuation

Jung used this process of individuation in pioneering the psychotherapy of the middle-aged and elderly, especially those who felt their lives had lost meaning. He helped them to view their lives from the perspective of history, religion and spirituality. Many of these patients had lost their religious beliefs; Jung found that if they could rediscover their own meaning as expressed in dream and imagination, as well as through the exploration of mythology and religion, they would become more complete personalities. To undergo this individuation process, individuals must allow themselves to be open to the parts of themselves beyond their own ego and when necessary question the assumptions of the operant societal worldview (rather than just blindly live life in accordance with dominant norms and assumptions).

In Psychology and Alchemy Jung further clarifies individuation—There is in the analytical process, that is to say in the dialectical discussion between the conscious mind and the unconscious, a development or advance toward some goal or end the perplexing nature of which has engaged my attention for many years. He continued to explain that the whole process may take a long time and the end goal is the "whole man", which corresponds to the God-image or self archetype. Individuation thus takes on an expanded meaning: it is a dialectical process concerned with the development of wholeness and the spontaneously produced symbols representing this cannot be distinguished from the God-image. This explains why individuation became identified with religious or spiritual development. Jung also stated that individuation is a natural process of maturation inherent in the nature of human beings, and is not only an analytic process. He believed that man became whole, integrated, calm and happy when the process of individuation was complete—when the conscious and unconscious have learned to live at peace and to complement one another.

Neurosis

Main article: Psychoneurosis

If a person does not proceed toward individuation, neurotic symptoms may arise. Symptoms are widely defined, including, for instance, phobias, fetishism, depression. Symptoms are interpreted to be similar to dreams in that there is a concealed meaning in the apparently useless symptom. "Neurosis" results from a disharmony between the individual's consciousness and the greater archetypal world. The aim of psychotherapy is to assist the individual in reestablishing a healthy relationship to the unconscious (neither being swamped by it—a state characteristic of psychosis—nor completely shut off from it—a state that results in malaise, empty consumerism, narcissism, and a life cut off from deeper meaning). The encounter between consciousness and the symbols arising from the unconscious enriches life and promotes psychological development. Jung considered this process of psychological growth and maturation (which he called the process of individuation) to be of critical importance to the human being, and ultimately to modern society.

Synchronicity

Jung defined the concept of synchronicity as two simultaneous events that occur coincidentally, that are not causally related but result in meaningful connection. Syncronicity is also defined as the meaningful coincidence of an inner image with an outer event which can often let one see the world in a new light, especially if one responds very deeply, with the full involvement of his or her being to the meaning of the event. Jung later collaborated with quantum physisist Wolfgang Pauli and their common reflections went far beyond psychology and physics, entering into the realm where the two areas meet in the philosophy of nature. As a consequence of their collaboration, synchronicity was transformed from an empirical concept into a fundamental explanatory-interpretative principle, which some believe go against the mainstream of present day science and could possibly lead to a more complete worldview. The existence of synchronistic events contributed to Jung's hypothesis of an inherent unitary reality where psyche and matter are "two different aspects of the same thing', because 'they are included in one and the same world". Jung called this unus mundus.

Jung also found evidence for sychronicity in his study of the ''I Ching'', astrology, alchemy, the work of Albertus Magus, and J. B. Rhine. These studies and his own experimentation lead him to deduce that synchronicity consists of two factors: an uconscious image that comes into consciousness either directly or indirectly, and an objective situation that coincides with this content.

Synchronicity may occur in the patient-therapist relationship and can cause psychological transformation when experienced, but it is not confined there. While Jung professed the imortance of the psychological significance of synchronicity, he also said I am equally interested, at times even more so, in the metaphysical aspect of this phenomena, and I cannot deny my fervent interest in this aspect. Jung recognized the potential, even beyond the psychoanalytic process, for every chance meeting to become personally meaningful. The work of Pauli and Jung in the area of synchronicity contributed to a more holistic worldview by bringing unity to mind and matter, philosophy (including metaphysics) and science.


Psychological types

Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types or temperaments. In order to better understand ourselves we need to understand the way we characteristically perceive, and then act upon, information. Jung identified two core psychological processes that he termed "extravert" (as originally spelled by Jung and considered a variant of the word "extrovert" in the Merriam Webster Dictionary) and "introvert." In Jung's original usage, the extravert orientation finds meaning outside the self, preferring the external world of things and people and activities. The introvert is introspective and finds meaning within, preferring the internal world of thoughts, feelings, fantasies, dreams.

Jung also identified four primary modes of experiencing the world:

  • Sensing: using visual and auditory senses to gather information about the world.
  • Thinking: evaluating information or ideas rationally and logically.
  • Intuiting: a type of perception that comes from the complex integration of large amounts of information, rather than simple seeing or hearing.
  • Feeling: evaluating information by considering one's overall emotional response.

Broadly speaking, we tend to work from our most developed function, while we need to broaden our personality by developing the other less developed functions. Related to this, Jung noted that the unconscious often tends to reveal itself most easily through a person's least developed function. The encounter with the unconscious and development of the underdeveloped function(s) thus tend to progress together.

Significant in Jung's theory is that "type preferences" are inborn and not socially constructed through interaction with the parents, family, culture and other external influences. Even so, the individual is impacted in the quality and strength of the development in her or his preferences. Nature and nurture are both at play. A supportive environment will support and facilitate inborn preference development; a contrary environment will impede or retard the natural development of inborn preferences. The research on the mental health problems of many left-handed children forced to be right-handed is not dissimilar to what often occurs for people "forced" into a non-preferred mode of personal orientation.

Comparison: Psychoanalysis and Analytical Psychology

Main article: Psychoanalysis

Analysis is a way to experience and integrate the unknown material. It is a search for the meaning of behaviors, symptoms, events. Many are the channels to reach this greater self-knowledge. The analysis of dreams is the most common. Others may include expressing feelings in art pieces, poetry or other expressions of creativity.

Giving a complete description of the process of dream interpretation and individuation is complex. The nature of the complexity lies on the fact that the process is highly specific to the person who does it.

While Freudian psychoanalysis assumes that the repressed material hidden in the unconscious is given by repressed sexual instincts, Analytical psychology has a more general approach. There is no preconceived assumption about the unconscious material. The unconscious, for Jungian analysts, may contain repressed sexual drives, but also aspirations, fears, as well as archetypes of the collective unconscious.

Post-Jung

Samuels (1985) has distinguished three schools of "post-Jungian" therapy - the classical, the developmental and the archetypal. In addition, depth psychology is strongly influenced by Jung, with contributions from Freud, James Hillman and Alfred Adler.

Classical school

The classical school is that which tries to remain faithful to what Jung himself proposed and taught in person and in his 20-plus volumes of work. There are evolutions within the classical school, however the focus is on the self and individuation.

Developmental school

The developmental school, which has a focus on the importance of infancy in the evolution of adult personality and character, and an equally stringent emphasis on the analysis of transference-countertransference dynamics in clinical work. The developmental school has a very close relationship with psychoanalysis. The developmental school, associated with Michael Fordham, Brian Feldman etc., can be considered a bridge between Jungian psychoanalysis and Melanie Klein's object relations theory. Laings and Goodheart are also often mentioned.

Archetypal school

Archetypal Psychology was founded by James Hillman (1926- )who is considered to be one of the most original psychologists of the 20th century. Trained at the Jung Institute in Zurich, he developed Archetypal psychology which he acknowledges originated with Jung. Whereas Jung’s psychology focused on the Self, its dynamics and its constellations (ego, anima, animus, shadow), Hillman’s Archetypal psychology relativizes and deliteralizes the ego and focuses on the psyche, or soul, itself and the archai, the deepest patterns of psychic functioning, "the fundamental fantasies that animate all life".

Other contributors to the archetypal school (sometimes called "the imaginal school"), include Clarissa Pinkola Estés, in her view that ethnic and aboriginal people are the originators of archetypal psychology and have long carried the maps to the journey of the soul in their songs, tales, dream-telling, art and rituals; Marion Woodman who proposes a feminist viewpoint regarding archetypal psychology, and other Jungians like Thomas Moore, as well. Most mythopoeticists/archetypal psychology innovators either imagine the Self not to be the main archetype of the collective unconscious as Jung thought, but rather assign each archetype equal value...Others, who are modern progenitors of archetypal psychology (such as Estés), think of the Self as that which contains and yet is suffused by all the other archetypes, each giving life to the other.

Robert L. Moore, one of Jung's most dedicated followers, has explored the archetypal level of the human psyche in a series of five books co-authored with Douglas Gillette, which have played an important role in the men's movement in the United States. R. Moore likes to use computerese, so he likens the archetypal level of the human psyche to the hard wiring of a computer. Our personal experiences of course influence our accessing the archetypal level of the human psyche, but personalized ego consciousness can be likened to the software in a computer (e.g., Microsoft Word).

Depth Psychology

Main article: Depth psychology

Depth psychology is most strongly influenced by the work of Carl Jung, especially his emphasis on questions of psyche, human development and personality development (or individuation). It is a broad term that refers to any psychological approach examining the depth (the hidden or deeper parts) of human experience.

Clinical theories

Main article: Clinical_psychology

Jung's writings have been of much interest to people of many backgrounds and interests, including theologians, people from the humanities, and mythologists. Jung often seemed to seek to make contributions to various fields, but he was mostly a practicing psychiatrist, involved during his whole career in treating patients. A description of Jung's clinical relevance is to address the core of his work.

Jung started his career working with hospitalized patients with major mental illnesses, most notably schizophrenia. He was interested in the possibilities of an unknown "brain toxin" that could be the cause of schizophrenia. But the majority and the heart of Jung's clinical career was taken up with what we might call today individual psychodynamic psychotherapy, in gross structure very much in the strain of psychoanalytic practice first formed by Freud.

It is important to state that Jung seemed to often see his work as not a complete psychology in itself but as his unique contribution to the field of psychology. Jung claimed late in his career that only for about a third of his patients did he use "Jungian analysis." For another third, Freudian analysis seemed to best suit the patient's needs and for the final third Adlerian analysis was most appropriate. In fact, it seems that most contemporary Jungian clinicians merge a developmentally grounded theory, such as Self psychology or Donald Winnicott's work, with the Jungian theories in order to have a "whole" theoretical repertoire to do actual clinical work.

The "I" or Ego is tremendously important to Jung's clinical work. Jung's theory of etiology of psychopathology could almost be simplified to be stated as a too rigid conscious attitude towards the whole of the psyche. That is, a psychotic episode can be seen from a Jungian perspective as the "rest" of the psyche overwhelming the conscious psyche because the conscious psyche effectively was locking out and repressing the psyche as a whole.

John Weir Perry's book The Farside of Madness explores and fleshes out this idea of Jung's very well. Note: this is a psychological description of a psychotic episode.

Jung hypothesized a medical basis for schizophrenia that was beyond the understanding of the medical science of his day (and seems to still be beyond present medical science in a satisfactory sense). Twin studies and plenty of clinical material seem to point clearly to a medical basis for schizophrenia. It perhaps can best be said that schizophrenia is both medical and psychological. A medical understanding (again, as yet still lacking) would not change the fact that schizophrenia is lived by those who have it psychologically; that is to say, as theorists and scientists, we may be able to say that schizophrenia happens in genes, brains, and the electrochemical, but for one who has schizophrenia it also happens in their mind and experience. This is to say a purely medical treatment of major mental illness is inadequate, as is a purely psychological treatment of major mental illness.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Samuels, Andrew. 1986. Jung and the Post-Jungians. London: Routledge. ISBN 0710208642.

External links


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