Difference between revisions of "Tuscarora (tribe)" - New World Encyclopedia

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* Kelsay, Isabel, ''Joseph Brant 1743-1780 Man of Two Worlds'', 1984, ISBN 0-8156-0182-4
 
* Kelsay, Isabel, ''Joseph Brant 1743-1780 Man of Two Worlds'', 1984, ISBN 0-8156-0182-4
 
* Taylor, Alan, ''The Divided Ground'', 2006, ISBN 0-679-45471-3
 
* Taylor, Alan, ''The Divided Ground'', 2006, ISBN 0-679-45471-3
 +
* Norton, Mary Beth, Carol Sheriff, David M. Katzman, David W. Blight, and Howard Chudacoff. 2007. ''A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, 8th Edition''. Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-0618951963
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 16:47, 24 October 2008


Tuscarora
Total population
7,500+
Regions with significant populations
Flag of United States United States (New York)
Flag of United States United States (North Carolina)
Flag of Canada Canada (Ontario)
Languages
English, Tuscarora
Religions
Christianity, Longhouse religion, Other Indigenous Religion
Related ethnic groups
other Iroquoian peoples

The Tuscarora are an American Indian tribe originally in North Carolina, which moved north to New York, and then partially into Canada.

History

Pre-contact distribution of Tuscarora

The Tuscarora originally inhabited the coastal plain of what became North Carolina.

The first successful and permanent settlement of North Carolina by Europeans began in earnest in 1653. The Tuscarora lived in peace with the European settlers who arrived in North Carolina for over 50 years at a time when nearly every other colony in America was actively involved in some form of conflict with the Native Americans. However, the arrival of the settlers was ultimately disastrous for the aboriginal inhabitants of North Carolina.

There were two primary contingents of Tuscarora at this point, a Northern group led by Chief Tom Blunt and a Southern group led by Chief Hancock. Chief Blunt occupied the area around what is present-day Bertie County on the Roanoke River; Chief Hancock was closer to New Bern, North Carolina, occupying the area south of the Pamplico River (now the Pamlico River). While Chief Blunt became close friends with the Blount family of the Bertie region, Chief Hancock found his villages raided and his people frequently kidnapped and sold into slavery. Both groups were heavily impacted by the introduction of European diseases, and both were rapidly having their lands stolen by the encroaching settlers. Ultimately, Chief Hancock felt there was no alternative but to attack the settlers. Tom Blunt did not become involved in the war at this point.

The Southern Tuscarora, led by Chief Hancock, worked in conjunction with the Pamplico Indians, the Cothechneys, the Cores, the Mattamuskeets and the Matchepungoes to attack the settlers in a wide range of locations in a short time period. Principal targets were the planters on the Roanoke River, the planters on the Neuse River and Trent River and the city of Bath. The first attacks began on September 22, 1711, and hundreds of settlers were ultimately killed. Several key political figures were either killed or driven off in the subsequent months.

Governor Edward Hyde called out the militia of North Carolina, and secured the assistance of the Legislature of South Carolina, who provided "six hundred militia and three hundred and sixty Indians under Col. Barnwell." This force attacked the Southern Tuscarora and other tribes in Craven County at Fort Narhantes on the banks of the Neuse River in 1712. The Tuscarora were "defeated with great slaughter; more than three hundred American Indians were killed, and one hundred made prisoners." These prisoners were largely women and children, who were ultimately sold into slavery.

Chief Blunt was then offered the chance to control the entire Tuscarora tribe if he assisted the settlers in putting down Chief Hancock. Chief Blunt was able to capture Chief Hancock, and the settlers executed him in 1712. In 1713 the Southern Tuscaroras lost Fort Neoheroka,located in Greene County[1], with over a thousand killed or captured.[2] The Tuscarora War was fought in North Carolina during the autumn of 1711 until 11 February, 1715 between the British, Dutch, and German settlers and the Tuscarora, a local American Indian tribe. A treaty was signed in 1715.

It was at this point that the majority of the Southern Tuscarora began migrating to New York to escape the settlers in North Carolina.

The remaining Tuscarora signed a treaty with the settlers in June 1718 granting them a tract of land on the Roanoke River in what is now Bertie County. This was the area already occupied by Tom Blunt, and was specified as 56,000 acres (227 km²); Tom Blunt, who had taken on the name Blount, was now recognized by the Legislature of North Carolina as King Tom Blount. The remaining Southern Tuscarora were removed from their homes on the Pamlico River and made to move to Bertie. In 1722 Bertie County was chartered, and over the next several decades the remaining Tuscorara lands were continually diminished as they were sold off in deals that were frequently designed to take advantage of the American Indians.



After the Tuscarora War most of the tribe removed from North Carolina to New York to become the sixth nation of the Iroquois, settling near the Oneidas. There were two primary contingents of Tuscarora at this point, a Northern group led by Chief Tom Blunt and a Southern group led by Chief Hancock. Chief Blunt occupied the area around what is present-day Bertie County on the Roanoke River; Chief Hancock was closer to New Bern, occupying the area south of the Pamplico River (now the Pamlico River). While Chief Blunt became close friends with the Blount family of the Bertie region, Chief Hancock found his villages raided and his people frequently kidnapped and sold into slavery. Both groups were heavily impacted by the introduction of European diseases, and both were rapidly having their lands stolen by the encroaching colonists. Ultimately, Chief Hancock felt there was no alternative but to attack the settlers. Tom Blunt did not become involved in the war at this point.

The Southern Tuscarora, led by Chief Hancock, worked in conjunction with the Pamlico Indians, the Cothechneys, the Cores, the Mattamuskeets and the Matchepungoes to attack the settlers in a wide range of locations in a short time period. Principle targets were the planters on the Roanoke River, the planters on the Neuse and Trent Rivers and the city of Bath. The first attacks began on September 22nd, 1711, and hundreds of settlers were ultimately killed. Several key political figures were either killed or driven off in the subsequent months.

File:Chief pelers tuscarora tribe.jpg
Chief Pelers, Tuscarora Tribe

Governor Edward Hyde called out the militia of North Carolina, and secured the assistance of the Legislature of South Carolina, who provided "six hundred militia and three hundred and sixty Indians under Col. Barnwell." This force attacked the Southern Tuscarora and other tribes in Craven County at Fort Narhantes on the banks of the Neuse River in 1712. The Tuscarora were "defeated with great slaughter; more than three hundred savages were killed, and one hundred made prisoners."

Chief Blunt was then offered the chance to control the entire Tuscarora tribe if he assisted the settlers in putting down Chief Hancock. Chief Blunt was able to capture Chief Hancock, and the settlers executed him in 1712. In 1713 the Southern Tuscaroras lost Fort Neoheroka, with 900 killed or captured.

It was at this point that the majority of the Southern Tuscarora began migrating to New York to escape the settlers in North Carolina. The migration period took approximately 90 years to complete. To this day there are still many people in North Carolina and other states who claim Tuscarora descent.

The remaining Tuscarora signed a treaty with the settlers in June 1718 granting them a tract of land on the Roanoke River in what is now Bertie County. This was the area already occupied by Tom Blunt, and was specified as 56,000 acres (227 km²); Tom Blunt, who had taken on the name Blount, was now recognized by the Legislature of North Carolina as King Tom Blount. The remaining Southern Tuscarora were removed from their homes on the Pamlico River and made to move to Bertie. In 1722 Bertie County was chartered, and over the next several decades the remaining Tuscorara lands were continually diminished as they were sold off in deals that were frequently designed to take advantage of the Indians.

A substantial portion of the Tuscaroras sided with the Oneida nation against the rest of the League of the Six Nations by fighting for the US government during the American Revolutionary War. Those that remained allies of the Crown would later follow Joseph Brant into Ontario.

In 1803 the final contingent of the Tuscarora migrated to New York to join the tribe at their reservation in Niagara County, under a treaty directed by Thomas Jefferson. In 1831 the Tuscarora sold the remaining rights to their lands in North Carolina. By this point the 56,000 acres (227 km²) had been pared down to a mere 2000 acres (8 km²). They lost even more land in the 20th century when developer Robert Moses expropriated 550 acres of their land for a hydroelectric project in the vicinity of Niagara Falls.[1]

Culture

Th Tuscarora originated in the area of the Atlantic coastal plain that became North Carolina. Their lifestyle there included hunting and gathering, as well as some farming. Fishing contributed significantly to their diet, as they could fish both in the rivers and gather shellfish and other fish from the ocean (Waldman 2006).

In the early eighteenth century, after the end of the Tuscarora War in 1715, most of the tribe removed from North Carolina to New York to become the sixth nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. At that time they adopted many aspects of the Iroquois culture, participating in Haudenosaunee rituals and developing their language as a branch of the Iroquoian languages.

Language

Skarure, the Tuscarora language, is a member of the Northern branch of the Iroquoian languages. It is spoken in southern Ontario, Canada, and northwestern New York around Niagara Falls, in the United States. The original homeland of the Tuscarora was in eastern North Carolina, in and around the Goldsboro, Kinston, and Smithfield areas, and some, though few, still live in this region. The name Tuscarora (pronounced approximately "Tuh-skuh-roar-uh") comes from the tribe's name and means "hemp people," after the Indian hemp or milkweed that they use in many aspects of their society. "Skarureh" refers to the long shirt worn as part of the men's regalia, hence "long shirt people."

Tuscarora is a living but severely endangered language. As of the mid-1970s, only about 52 people spoke the language on the Tuscarora Reservation (Lewiston, New York) and the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation (near Brantford, Ontario) . The Tuscarora School in Lewiston has striven to keep the language alive, teaching children from pre-kindergarten to sixth grade. Despite this, Ethnologue reports a total of only 11 to 13 speakers in the 1990s, all of whom are older adults.

The Tuscarora language can appear complex to those unfamiliar with it, more in terms of the grammar than the sound system. Many ideas can be expressed in a single word, and most words involve several components that must be considered before speaking (or writing). It is written using mostly symbols from the Roman alphabet, with some variations, additions, and diacritics.

Religion

The Tuscarora adopeted Iroquois tradition which recognized a supreme creator, Orenda, in the festivals held for harvest, maple sap, strawberries, and maize. They believed that winter is a time of death in which Mother Earth goes into a long slumber, in which many plants die, but when spring arrives and nature begins to flourish, she has woken up and given life once again. Celebration of the maple sap and strawberries as well as corn planting were considered spiritual in nature. Also, in the winter, there was an important eight-day festival to give thanks and to forget past wrongs.

Stonish Giants, engraving by David Cusick from Sketches of the Ancient History of the Six Nations

The Iroquois believed in a supreme spirit, Orenda, the "Great Spirit" from whom all other spirits were derived. Atahensic (also called Ataensic) is a sky goddess who fell to the earth at the time of creation. According to legend, she was carried down to the land by the wings of birds. After her fall from the sky she gave birth to Hahgwehdiyu and Hahgwehdaetgah, twin sons. She died in childbirth and was considered the goddess of pregnancy, fertility, and feminine skills.

Hahgwehdiyu put a plant into his mothers lifeless body and from it grew maize as a gift to humankind. Hahgwehdaetgah his twin was an evil spirit.

Festivals were held to honor maple sap and strawberries. In the winter, an eight-day celebration was held to give thanks and to forgive wrongs that occurred during the past year. Medicine groups such as the False Face Society danced with wooden masks. Illness was thought to be caused by spiritual influences. A sick person received dances and songs to be performed in their dreams. Shamans were adept at using as many as 200 medicinal herbs to assist with healing (Pritzker 2000).

In the early nineteenth century the teachings of Handsome Lake became popular among Tuscarora. Handsome Lake was a Seneca who taught about Jesus and also blended the traditional celebrations with Christian-style confessions of sin and urged Native Americans to stay away from alcohol. His teachings eventually were incorporated into the Longhouse religion, which continues to have followers today.

Contemporary Tuscarora

  • Tuscarora at Six Nations of the Grand River, Ontario

Six Nations of the Grand River is the name applied to two contiguous Indian reserves southeast of Brantford, Ontario, Canada – Six Nations reserve no. 40 and Glebe Farm reserve no. 40B.

The original reserve was granted by Frederick Haldimand under the Haldimand Proclamation of October 1784 to Joseph Brant and his Iroquois followers in appreciation of their support for the Crown during the American Revolution. In 1785 a census showed that 1,843 Natives lived there which included 448 Mohawk, 381 Cayuga, 245 Onondaga, 162 Oneida 129 Tuscarora, 78 Seneca. There were also 400 from other tribes including Delawares, Nanticokes, Tutelos, and even some Creeks and Cherokees.[3] Joseph Brant also invited several white families to live on the grant, particularly former members of Brant's Volunteers and Butler's Rangers. To encourage his white friends to settle he gave them larger grants than the government gave other loyalists. Some of the Indians objected to Brant giving land grants to whites.

The Indians received provisions from the Indian department including such items as saws, axes, grindstones, and chisels. They received from the government help in the establishing of schools and churches and in securing farm equipment and other necessaries. In 1785, the government built the first Protestant church in Upper Canada (Ontario), Her Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks, on this land. It is now one of twelve Royal Chapels supported by the Crown throughout the world.

The main town was at what is near Brantford and was called Brant's town where Joseph Brant lived. In 1798 it was described as a large and sprawling settlement and Joseph's house as a handsome two-story house, built like the houses of white people. Brant's house was described as a palace compared with the other dwellings.[citation needed] In 1797, Brant founded one of the earliest Masonic lodges in Upper Canada with himself as its Worshipful Master.

In the early 1790s the population started decreasing as Indians left the Grand River for native communities in New York. The communities in New York were richer because these Indians had been selling off their land.[citation needed] After Brant's land sales the population began to increase again.

The Grant was confirmed with a limited deed by Governor Simcoe, January 14, 1793. This deed did not extend to the source of the Grand River[citation needed] to which the Six Nations maintained they were entitled, as described in the earlier Haldimand Proclamation. Also, this deed forbid them to sell the land to anyone but themselves and the king. Led by Joseph Brant, the chiefs rejected the deed.

In 1795, the Grand River chiefs empowered Joseph Brant to sell large blocks of land in the northern section which the Indians were not using. The terms desired where for no money down because they wanted to take their payment entirely in future years as annual interest.

The original tract of land stretched from the mouth of the Grand River on the shores of Lake Erie to the river's head, and for 10 km (6 mi) from either bank. Between 1795 and 1797 Joseph Brant sold 381,480 acres to land speculators comprising the northern half of the reserve for £85,332. This was the highest price ever paid to Indians, up to this time, for wild undeveloped land. Simcoe opposed this sale. The interest on the annuity promised an income of £5,119 per year, far more than any other Iroquois people had received. The land speculators were unable to sell farm size lots to settlers fast enough and by 1801, all of the land speculators had fallen behind in their payments. Because of the lack of payments Brant was determined to sell more land to make up for the missing payments.

In 1796, Lord Dorchester issued another deed for the land in which the Indians were given the authority to lease or sell their land provided they offered it for sale to the government first. Brant rejected this deed partly because the deed named the Six Nations as owners of the land when he thought the deed should not be for the current persons living on the land.

In 1800, two thirds of the Indians were still not acquainted with agriculture and living near to whites who had not helped them as much as Brant expected.

In 1828, John Brant (Mohawk chief) was appointed resident superintendent for the Six Nations of the Grand River.

The current reserves encompass 184.7 km² (71 mi²), all but 0.4 km² in Six Nations reserve no. 40.

Named communities within the Six Nations reserve include Beavers Corner, Longboat Corners, Medina Corners, Ohsweken, St. Johns, Sixty-Nine Corners, Smith Corners, Smoothtown, Sour Spring and Stoneridge.


They later welcomed a group of Delawares to the reserve.

Six Nations of the Grand River is the most populous reserve in Canada, with a population in 2001 of 21,474. The reserve is home to members of the following nations:

  • Mohawk
    • Bay of Quinte Mohawk
    • Lower Mohawk
    • Upper Mohawk
    • Walker Mohawk
  • Oneida
  • Onondaga
    • Bearfoot Onondaga
    • Onondaga Clear Sky
  • Cayuga
    • Lower Cayuga
    • Upper Cayuga
  • Seneca
    • Konadaha Seneca
    • Niharondasa Seneca
  • Delaware (Munsee)
  • Tuscarora

The reserve has both a traditional Iroquois council of chiefs and an elected band council conforming to Canadian government requirements.

  • Tuscarora Nation at Lewiston, New York

The Tuscarora Reservation (Nyučirhéˀę[4] in Tuscarora) is an Indian reservation located in the Town of Lewiston in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 1,138 at the 2000 census. The Tuscarora are a tribe of the Iroquois.


The Tuscarora tribe was previously located in North Carolina, but moved north after conflict with European settlers at the beginning of the 18th Century as a result of the Tuscarora War. They first located in the territory of the Oneida tribe in central New York. Subsequently, the Tuscarora, like the Oneida, were allies of the American cause during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, suffering in each case from attacks of the British and their allies. They were given land from the Seneca tribe in 1797, and, in 1803, were granted a reservation in Niagara County.

In 1960, by means of the efforts of Robert Moses, part of the Tuscarora reservation was taken for use by the Niagara Power Authority, leading to a displacement of tribal members and a serious disruption to their economy. Much of the land was used to form a reservoir for the hydroelectric turbines operated by the Power Authority.

In 2003, the Power Authority agreed to compensate the tribe and return some unused land.

The reservation is a composite holding derived from (1) land given to the tribe the Seneca tribe, Land donated by the Holland Land Company, and (3) Trust territory held by the federal government.


According to the United States Census Bureau, the Indian reservation has a total area of 24.0 km² (9.3 mi²), all land. The reservation is located northeast of Niagara Falls, New York.


As of the censusGR2 of 2000, there were 1,138 people, 398 households, and 284 families residing in the Indian reservation. The population density was 47.4/km² (122.8/mi²). There were 398 housing units at an average density of 16.6/km² (42.9/mi²). The racial makeup of the Indian reservation was 58.61% White, 9.31% Black or African American, 27.33% Native American, 0.53% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 1.32% from other races, and 2.81% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.32% of the population.

There were 398 households out of which 43.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.4% were non-families. 21.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.36.

In the Indian reservation the population was spread out with 34.3% under the age of 18, 13.7% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 14.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 104.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.4 males.

The median income for a household in the Indian reservation was $32,500, and the median income for a family was $38,333. Males had a median income of $33,281 versus $25,074 for females. The per capita income for the Indian reservation was $14,427. About 9.9% of families and 13.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.4% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over.

There are several bands, groups, and organizations without federal recognition:

  • Skaroreh Katenuaka at Tosneoc Village in Elm City, North Carolina
  • Southern Band Tuscarora Indian Tribe at Windsor, North Carolina
  • Hatteras Tuscarora at Cape Fear, North Carolina
  • Tuscarora Nation of Indians of the Carolinas at Maxton, North Carolina
  • Skaroreh Katenuaka Nation at Robeson County, North Carolina

It has also been suggested that the Tuscarora are among the ancestors of the Lumbee, a tribe in Robeson County, North Carolina.

Notes

  1. North Carolina Archaeology: FORT NEOHEROKA
  2. A People & A Nation: Seventh Edition 2005
  3. Kelsay pg. 370
  4. Rudes, B. Tuscarora English Dictionary Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Hodge, Frederick Webb. Handbook Of American Indians V2: North Of Mexico Part Two. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006 (original 1906). ISBN 1428645586.
  • Waldman, Carl. 2006. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. New York, NY: Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0816062744
  • Graymont, Barbara (ed.). Fighting Tuscarora: The Autobiography of Chief Clinton Rickard. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994. ISBN 0815601905
  • Printup, Bryan, and Neil Patterson Jr. Tuscarora Nation (Images of America). Arcadia Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-0738549538
  • Pritzker, Barry M. 2000. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195138771
  • Graymont, Barbara, The Iroquois in the American Revolution, 1972, ISBN 0-8156-0083-6
  • Kelsay, Isabel, Joseph Brant 1743-1780 Man of Two Worlds, 1984, ISBN 0-8156-0182-4
  • Taylor, Alan, The Divided Ground, 2006, ISBN 0-679-45471-3
  • Norton, Mary Beth, Carol Sheriff, David M. Katzman, David W. Blight, and Howard Chudacoff. 2007. A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, 8th Edition. Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-0618951963

External links


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