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A '''Tomb''' is a repository for the remains of the [[death|dead]].  
 
A '''Tomb''' is a repository for the remains of the [[death|dead]].  
  
The term generally refers to any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. The word is used in a broad sense to encompass a number of such types of places of interment or, occasionally, [[grave (burial)|burial]], including:
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The term generally refers to any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes.  
*[[Burial vault (tomb)|Burial vault]]s – stone or brick-lined underground spaces for interment (rather than burial), originally [[vault (architecture)|vaulted]], often privately owned for specific family groups; usually beneath a religious building such as a [[church]] or in a [[churchyard]] or [[cemetery]]
 
*[[Church monument]]s – within a church (or tomb-style chests in a churchyard) may be places of interment, but this is unusual; they more commonly stand over the [[grave (burial)|grave]] or burial vault rather than containing the actual body and are therefore not tombs
 
*[[Crypt]]s – often, though not always, for interment; similar to burial vaults but usually for more general public interment
 
*Martyrium - final resting place for the remains of a martyr or saint, such as [[San Pietro in Montorio]]
 
*[[Mausoleum|Mausolea]] (including [[Pyramid#Ancient monuments|ancient pyramids]] in some countries) – external free-standing structures, above ground, acting as both monument and place of interment, usually for individuals or family groups
 
*[[Megalithic tomb]]s (including [[Chamber tomb]]s) – prehistoric places of interment, often for large communities, constructed of large stones and originally covered with an earthen mound
 
*[[Sarcophagus|Sarcophagi]] – stone containers for bodies or [[coffin]]s, often decorated and perhaps part of a monument; these may stand within religious buildings or greater tombs or mausolea
 
*[[Sepulchre]]s – cavernous, rock-cut or stone-built (often underground) spaces for interment, such as the [[:Category:Tombs of ancient Egypt|tombs of ancient Egypt]]; however, it is generally used to refer to similar [[Jew|Jewish]] or Christian structures.
 
*[[Shrine|Architectural shrines]] – in [[Christianity]], an architectural shrine above a [[saint]]'s first [[grave (burial)|place of burial]], as opposed to a similar shrine on which stands a [[reliquary]] or [[feretory]] into which the saint's remains have been transferred
 
*Other forms of archaeological 'tombs' such as [[ship burial]]s
 
  
 
As indicated, tombs are generally located in or under religious buildings, such as churches, or in cemeteries or churchyards. However, they may also be found in [[catacombs]], on private land or, in the case of early or pre-historic tombs, in what is today open landscape.
 
As indicated, tombs are generally located in or under religious buildings, such as churches, or in cemeteries or churchyards. However, they may also be found in [[catacombs]], on private land or, in the case of early or pre-historic tombs, in what is today open landscape.
  
 
The tomb of [[Emperor Nintoku]] (the 16th emperor of [[Japan]]) is the largest in the world by area. However, the [[Pyramid]] of [[Khufu]] in [[Egypt]] is the largest by volume.
 
The tomb of [[Emperor Nintoku]] (the 16th emperor of [[Japan]]) is the largest in the world by area. However, the [[Pyramid]] of [[Khufu]] in [[Egypt]] is the largest by volume.
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The word is used in a broad sense to encompass a number of such types of places of interment or, occasionally, [[grave (burial)|burial]], including:
  
  
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==Burial vault==
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Burial vaults – stone or brick-lined underground spaces for interment (rather than burial), originally [[vault (architecture)|vaulted]], often privately owned for specific family groups; usually beneath a religious building such as a [[church]] or in a [[churchyard]] or [[cemetery]]
  
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A '''burial vault''' is a structural underground [[tomb]].
  
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It is a stone or brick-lined underground space or 'burial' chamber for the interment of a [[death|dead]] body or bodies. They were originally and are still often [[vault (architecture)|vaulted]] and usually have stone slab entrances. They are often privately owned and used for specific family or other groups, but usually stand beneath a public religious building, such as a [[church]], or in a [[churchyard]] or [[cemetery]]. A [[crypt]] may be used as a burial vault.
  
{{Credits|Tomb|126198713|}}
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==Church monument==
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Church monuments – within a church (or tomb-style chests in a churchyard) may be places of interment, but this is unusual; they more commonly stand over the [[grave (burial)|grave]] or burial vault rather than containing the actual body and are therefore not tombs
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[[image:john.gower.southwark.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The effigial monument to [[John Gower]] in [[Southwark Cathedral]], [[Surrey]] (now [[London Borough of Southwark|London]]).]]
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A '''church monument''' is an [[architecture|architectural]] or [[sculpture|sculptural]] [[memorial]] to a [[death|dead]] person or persons, often in the form of an [[effigy]] or a [[Commemorative plaque|wall tablet]], located within a [[Christian]] [[church]]. It usually resides immediately above or close to the actual [[burial vault (tomb)|burial vault]] or [[Grave (burial)|grave]], although very occasionally the [[tomb]] is constructed within it or it is a mere [[cenotaph]].
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Once only the subject of antiquarian curiosity, they are today recognised as fine works of art, as well as a highly detailed and invaluable record of antique [[costume]] and [[armour]] and, from the middle of the [[15th century]], of genuine face-[[portrait|portraiture]].
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===Development===
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[[Image:Thelwall memorial.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Thelwall's Mural monument at Oxford]]
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===Medieval period===
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The earliest church monuments, dating from the early [[12th century]], were simple stone [[coffin]]-shaped grave coverings incised with a cross or similar design. The first attempts at commemorative portraiture emerged soon afterwards, executed in low relief, horizontal but as in life. Gradually these became full high-relief [[effigy|effigies]], usually recumbent, as in death, and, by the [[14th century]], with hands together in prayer. In general, such '''monumental effigies''' were carved in stone, marble or wood, or cast in bronze or brass. Often the stone effigies were painted to resemble life, but on the vast majority of medieval monuments, this has long since disappeared. The crossed-legged attitude of numerous mail-armoured [[knight]]s was long supposed to imply that the deceased had served in the [[Crusade]]s, but this supposition is unfounded. By the early [[13th century]], the effigies became raised on tomb-style chests (known as '''tomb chests''' or '''altar tombs''') decorated with foliage, [[heraldry]] or [[architecture|architectural]] detailing. Soon such chests also stood alone with varying degrees of decorations. By the end of the century, these often had architectural [[canopy|canopies]] and figured 'weepers' (often friends or relatives identified by their [[coat of arms|coats of arms]]) were popular decorative features. In the [[15th century]] these often became [[angel]]s or [[saint]]s and the chest might include a [[cadaver tomb|cadaver]]. The best monuments were made of [[alabaster]]. Around the 13th century, smaller two-dimensional effigies incised in plates of brass and affixed to monumental slabs of stone became popular too. These [[monumental brass|memorial brasses]] were somewhat cheaper and particularly popular with the emerging middle class.
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In the [[16th century]], church monuments became increasingly influenced by [[Renaissance]] forms and detailing (pilasters, wreaths, strapwork, skulls, coffered arches, [[obelisk]]s, [[allegorical sculpture|allegorical figures]], etc), particularly in France, the Netherlands and, eventually, England. There were major innovations in effigial posture, the deceased often being shown reclining or kneeling in prayer and surrounded by the whole family, as in life. Cadavers were replaced by skeletons. The 'hanging' '''mural''' or '''wall monument''' also became popular, sometimes with half-length 'demi-figures'; and also the floor-bound heraldic '''ledger stone'''. The [[17th century]] saw an increase in [[classicism]] and the use of [[marble]]. Effigies might be sitting or standing, grief-stricken, shrouded or, unusually, rising from the grave. [[Bust (sculpture)|Busts]] and relief portraits were popular. High [[Baroque]] monuments were some of the grandest ever constructed. Decoration turned to cherubs, urns, drapery, garlands of fruit and flowers. In the [[18th century]], church monuments became more restrained, placed before two-dimensional pyramids, but more Roman-like, with the deceased often depicted in Roman dress or as a [[cameo]]-like 'medallion portrait'. The Rococo style gave more movement to these figures.
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The early [[19th century]] brought us [[Greek Revival]] monuments, some quite plain wall plaques, some with sentimental and romantically realistic figures (perhaps rising to heaven) or other devices like [[willow|weeping willows]]. [[Gothic Revival]] followed, with the obvious return to alabaster, tomb chests and recumbent effigies. However, the [[Victorian period|Victorian age]] saw many differing styles, until large-scale monuments fell out of fashion at the end of the century. [[20th century]] large-scale monuments are not unknown, but quite rare.
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===Examples of English church monuments===
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[[Image:AnnLynn.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Part of the memorial placed by Ann Bellamy Lynn to her husband George at St Mary's church [[Southwick, Northamptonshire]]]]
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The church monuments of England, in particular, have been preserved in far greater numbers and, generally, in better condition than those of other countries, and are second to none in artistic merit. Fine examples may be found in cathedrals and parish churches in every county, for example:
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* [[Turvey]] in [[Bedfordshire]]
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* [[Aldworth]], [[Bisham]] & [[St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle|St. George's Chapel, Windsor]] in [[Berkshire]]
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* [[Chenies]] & [[Wing, Buckinghamshire|Wing]] in [[Buckinghamshire]]
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* [[Bunbury, Cheshire|Bunbury]] & St. Michael's, [[Macclesfield]] in [[Cheshire]]
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* [[Launceston, Cornwall|Launceston]] & [[St. Germans]] in [[Cornwall]]
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* [[Bakewell]], [[Edensor]], [[Kedleston]] & [[Norbury, Derbyshire|Norbury]] in [[Derbyshire]]
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* [[Gittisham]] & [[Holcombe Rogus]] in [[Devon]]
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* [[Puddletown]] & [[Sherborne Abbey]] in [[Dorset]]
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* [[Chester-le-Street]] & [[Staindrop]] in [[County Durham]]
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* [[Winchelsea]] & [[Withyam]] in [[East Sussex]]
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* [[Chipping Campden]] & [[Tewkesbury Abbey]] in [[Gloucestershire]]
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* [[St Helen's Bishopsgate|St. Helen, Bishopsgate]] & the [[Chapel]] of [[St. Peter ad Vincula]] at the [[Tower of London]], [[City of London]]
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* [[Harefield]], [[Temple Church]] & [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[Middlesex]]
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* [[Titchfield]] & [[Winchester Cathedral]] in [[Hampshire]]
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* [[Holme Lacey]], [[Much Marcle]] & [[Ross-on-Wye]] in [[Herefordshire]]
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* [[Hatfield, Hertfordshire|Bishop's Hatfield]] & [[Knebworth]] in [[Hertfordshire]]
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* [[Canterbury Cathedral]], [[Goudhurst]] & [[Lynsted]] in [[Kent]]
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* [[Bottesford, Leicestershire|Bottesford]] & [[Breedon-on-the-Hill]] in [[Leicestershire]]
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* [[Lincoln Cathedral]], [[Spilsby]] & St. Martin's, [[Stamford, Lincolnshire|Stamford]] in [[Lincolnshire]]
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* [[Great Brington]], [[Lowick, Northamptonshire|Lowick]], [[Stowe Nine Churches|Stowe-Nine-Churches]] & [[Warkton]] in [[Northamptonshire]]
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* [[Langar, Nottinghamshire|Langar]] & [[Strelley, Nottingham|Strelley]] in [[Nottinghamshire]]
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* [[Exton, Rutland|Exton]] & [[Stoke Dry]] in [[Rutland]]
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* [[Burford]], [[Dorchester Abbey]], [[Ewelme]] & [[Rotherfield Greys]] in [[Oxfordshire]]
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* [[Kinlet]] & [[Tong, Shropshire|Tong]] in [[Shropshire]]
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* [[Hinton St George]] & [[Rodney Stoke]] in [[Somerset]]
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* [[Elford]] & [[Ilam, Staffordshire|Ilam]] in [[Staffordshire]]
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* [[St Michael the Archangel, Framlingham|Framlingham]] & [[Wingfield, Suffolk|Wingfield]] in [[Suffolk]]
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* [[Bletchingley]] & [[Ockham, Surrey|Ockham]] in [[Surrey]]
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* [[Stratford-upon-Avon]] & [[Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick|St. Mary's Collegiate Church, Warwick]] in [[Warwickshire]]
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* [[Arundel]] & [[Boxgrove Priory]] in [[West Sussex]]
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* [[Edington Priory]], [[Lydiard Tregoze]] & [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in [[Wiltshire]]
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* [[Croome Park|Croome D'Abitot]] & [[Elmley Castle]] in [[Worcestershire]]
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* [[Beverley Minster]], Holy Trinity, [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] & [[Swine, East Riding of Yorkshire|Swine]] in the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]]
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* [[Coxwold]] & [[West Tanfield]] in the [[North Riding of Yorkshire]]
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* [[Harewood]] & [[Kirkheaton]] in the [[West Riding of Yorkshire]]
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==Crypt==
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{{Main|Crypt}}
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[[Crypt]]s – often, though not always, for interment; similar to burial vaults but usually for more general public interment
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==Mausoleum==
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{{Main|Mausoleum}}
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Mausolea (including [[Pyramid#Ancient monuments|ancient pyramids]] in some countries) – external free-standing structures, above ground, acting as both monument and place of interment, usually for individuals or family groups
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==Megalithic and Chamber tombs==
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Megalithic tombs (including Chamber tombs) – prehistoric places of interment, often for large communities, constructed of large stones and originally covered with an earthen mound.
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[[image:hunebed-d27.jpg|thumb|right|450px|Large T shaped ''Hunebed'' D27 in [[Borger-Odoorn]], [[Netherlands]].]]
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A '''Megalithic tomb''' is an over ground burial place, built by [[Neolithic]] farming communities, from large stone slabs ([[megalith]]s) laid on edge, and which were then covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of [[chamber tomb]], and the term is used to describe the structures built across [[Atlantic Europe]], the [[Mediterranean]] and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period. They differ from the contemporary [[long barrow]]s through their structural use of stone and may contain [[cremation]]s or articulated or disarticulated [[inhumation]]s which were kept in the more accessible stone chambers, unlike those simply buried underneath [[tumulus|barrow]]s.
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=== European Megalithic Traditions ===
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There is a huge variety of types and styles. The free-standing single chamber [[dolmen]]s and [[portal dolmen]]s found in [[Brittany]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Ireland]], [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[Wales]] and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone [[cairn]] or earth [[tumulus|barrow]].
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Examples with outer areas, not used for burial are also known, the [[Court Cairn]]s of south west [[Scotland]] and northern [[Ireland]], the [[Severn-Cotswold tomb]]s of south west [[England]] and the [[Transepted gallery grave]]s of the [[Loire]] region in [[France]] share many internal features although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire to emphasise a special [[ritual]] or physical separation of the dead from the living by the builders.
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The [[Passage grave]]s of [[Orkney]], Ireland's [[Boyne]] Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at [[Maeshowe]] for example is unknown elsewhere in north west Europe at the time.
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Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organisation and effort required to erect these large stones mean that the societies concerned must have placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The [[ritual]] significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of [[Pre-historic art|megalithic art]] carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.
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Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at [[Midhowe]] in Orkney and the passage grave at [[Bryn Celli Ddu]] on [[Anglesey]]. Despite its name, the [[Stone Tomb]] in [[Ukraine]] was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.
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=== Northeast Asian Megalithic Traditions: the Korean Peninsula ===
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[[Image:Gochang Dolmen Sites - 3.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Northern-style megalithic burial from Jukrim-ri, Gochang-eub, [[North Jeolla Province]], [[Korea]].]]
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====Northern-style====
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Most archaeologists are of the consensus that Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in [[Northeast China]], in particular the [[Liao River]] basin. Koreans have noted that the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. They call the earliest megalithic burials "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the [[Mumun Pottery Period]] (c. 1500-850 B.C.E.) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the [[Han River]]. A few northern-style megaliths in [[China]] contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of [[grave-robbery]] or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no [[grave goods]] at all.
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====Southern-style====
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These megalithic burials are distributed in the southern [[Korean Peninsula]] and it is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period. Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale then northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A large heavy capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula conform to the southern type. Archaeologists estimate varyingly that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in Korea.
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[[Image:Orim-dongmegalithpetroglyph.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Representations of a dagger (right)and two human figures, one of which is kneeling (left), carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No. 5, Orim-dong, [[Yeosu]], Korea.]]
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As with northern megaliths, the excavated southern examples contain few, if any artifacts. However, some megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in a line parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations. 
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====Capstone-style====
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These megaliths are distinct from other types by a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, that is lined with cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the [[Korean Peninsula]], and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700-550 B.C.E.), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern [[Changwon]] at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive rectangularly-shaped stone-and-earthern platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56 X 18 m in size.
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===Chamber tomb===
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A '''chamber tomb''' is a [[tomb]] for [[burial]] used in many different [[culture]]s. In the case of individual burials, the chamber is thought to signify a higher status for the interree than a simple [[grave (burial)|grave]]. Built from [[Rock (geology)|rock]] or sometimes [[wood]], the chambers could also serve as places for storage of the dead from one family or social group and were often used over long periods for the placement of multiple burials. There are numerous terms for them depending on the period, design and region in question. Most were built from large stones or [[megalith]]s and covered by [[cairn]]s, [[tumulus|barrow]]s or earth, but the term is also applied to tombs cut directly into rock and wooden-chambered tombs covered with earth barrows. [[Grave good]]s are a common characteristic of chamber tomb burials.
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In [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]] [[Europe]] stone-built examples are known by the generic term of [[megalithic tomb]]s.
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Chamber tombs are often distinguished by the layout of their chambers and entrances or the shape and material of the structure that covered them, either an earth [[tumulus|barrow]] or stone [[cairn]]. A wide variety of local types has been identified, and some designs appear to have influenced others.
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==Sarcophagus==
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{{Main|Sarcophagus}}
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Sarcophagi – stone containers for bodies or [[coffin]]s, often decorated and perhaps part of a monument; these may stand within religious buildings or greater tombs or mausolea
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==Sepulchre==
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Sepulchres – cavernous, rock-cut or stone-built (often underground) spaces for interment, such as the [[:Category:Tombs of ancient Egypt|tombs of ancient Egypt]]; however, it is generally used to refer to similar [[Jew|Jewish]] or Christian structures.
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A '''sepulcher''', or '''sepulchre''', is a type of [[tomb]] or [[burial]] chamber. In ancient Hebrew practice, it was carved into the rock of a hillside.
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''The term is most often used for the [[Wiktionary:sepulchral| sepulchral]] burial site of [[Jesus]] in [[Jerusalem]], over which the [[Church of the Holy Sepulcher]] has been erected; see there for other links.''
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The word is sometimes confused with "sepulture," the act of burying a dead person.
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'''Sepulchre''' - first mentioned as purchased by [[Abraham]] for [[Sarah]] from [[Ephron]] the Hittite (Gen. 23:20). This was the [[Tomb of the Patriarchs|"cave of the field of Machpelah"]], where also Abraham and [[Rebekah]] and [[Jacob]] and [[Leah]] were buried (79:29-32). In Acts 7:16 it is said that Jacob was "laid in [[Joseph%27s tomb|the sepulchre]] that [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=joshua%2024:32-24:32&version=31 Abraham bought for a sum of money] of the sons of [[Emmor]] the father of Sychem." It has been proposed, as a mode of reconciling the apparent discrepancy between this verse and Gen. 23:20, to read Acts 7:16 thus: "And they [i.e., our fathers] were carried over into Sychem, and laid in the sepulchre that Abraham bought for a sum of money from the sons of Emmor [the son] of Sychem." In this way the purchase made by Abraham is not to be confounded with the purchase made by Jacob subsequently in the same district. Of this purchase by Abraham there is no direct record in the Old Testament. (See [[Thomas Campbell]])
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Tombs of the [[Hebrews]] were generally excavated in the solid rock or
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were natural caves. Mention is made of such tombs in [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 8:32;
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2 [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] 2:32; and 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 9:28; 23:30. They were sometimes made in
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gardens (2 Kings 21:26; 23:16; [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 27:60). They are found in
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great numbers in and around [[Jerusalem]] and all over the land.
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They were sometimes [[whitewash|whitewashed]] (Matthew 23:27, 29). The body of
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[[Jesus]] was laid in [[Joseph of Arimathea]]'s new rock-hewn tomb, in a garden near
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to [[Calvary]] perhaps the site of the [[Holy Sepulchre]].
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The mouth of such rocky tombs was usually closed by a large
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stone (Hebrew ''golal''), which could only be removed by the united
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efforts of several men (Matthew 28:2; [[Gospel of John|John]] 11:39)
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==Ship burial==
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[[Image:Semiradski.jpg|thumb|250px|Ship burial of [[Igor of Kiev|Igor the Old]] in 945, depicted by [[Heinrich Semiradski]] (1845-1902).]]
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A '''ship burial''' or '''boat grave''' is a [[burial]] in which a [[ship]] or [[boat]] is used either as a container for the dead and the grave goods, or as a part of the grave goods itself. If the ship is very small, it is called a boat grave. This style of burial was used in the [[Vendel era]] and by the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo Saxons]], the [[Merovingian]]s, the [[Vikings]] and occasionally the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians. This burial was seen as a way for the dead to sail to [[Valhalla]], ship burial was a high honour.
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[[Image:Gokstad viking ship -excavation.jpg|thumb|left|Gokstad Viking ship excavation. Photographed in ~1880]]
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===Examples of ship burials===
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*[[Giza Necropolis#Khufu ship|Khufu ship]] Giza pyramid complex,  ([[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]])
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*[[Gokstad ship|Gokstad]], Norway
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*[[Ladby ship|Ladby]], Denmark
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*[[Oseberg ship|Oseberg]], Norway
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*[[Snape boat grave|Snape]], East Anglia, England
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*[[Sutton Hoo]], East Anglia, England
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*[[Tune ship|Tune]], Norway
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*[[Valsgärde]], Sweden
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*[[Vendel]], Sweden
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*[[Rurikovo gorodishche]] near [[Novgorod]]
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*[[Sarskoye Gorodishche]] near [[Rostov]]
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*[[Timerevo]] near [[Yaroslavl]]
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*[[Black Grave]] near [[Chernigov]]
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*[[Ibn Fadlan]] gives an eye-witness account of a [[10th century]] ship burial.
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==Martyrium==
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Martyrium - final resting place for the remains of a martyr or saint, such as [[San Pietro in Montorio]]
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==References==
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*This entry incorporates text from the public domain ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', originally published in 1897.
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*Crossley, FH (1921). English Church Monuments AD 1150-1550. Batsford
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*Esdaile, KA (1946). English Church Monuments 1510-1840. Batsford
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*Kemp, B (1980). English Church Monuments. Batsford
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*Nelson, Sarah M.
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:1993      ''The Archaeology of Korea''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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==External links==
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*[http://www.churchmonumentssociety.org/ The Church Monuments Society]
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*[http://www.berkshirehistory.com/churches/monuments.html Royal Berkshire History: Church Monuments]
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*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/peter.fairweather/docs/monuments.htm Churchmouse: Church Monuments & Other Memorials of Interest] (mostly Lincolnshire)
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{{Credits|Tomb|126198713|Burial_vault_(tomb)|126341240|Church_monument|125442299|Megalithic_tomb|134537651|Sepulchre|130075922|Chamber_tomb|104600517|Ship_burial|133620219|}}

Revision as of 13:48, 4 June 2007


A type of tomb: a mausoleum in Le Père Lachaise cemetery.

A Tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead.

The term generally refers to any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes.

As indicated, tombs are generally located in or under religious buildings, such as churches, or in cemeteries or churchyards. However, they may also be found in catacombs, on private land or, in the case of early or pre-historic tombs, in what is today open landscape.

The tomb of Emperor Nintoku (the 16th emperor of Japan) is the largest in the world by area. However, the Pyramid of Khufu in Egypt is the largest by volume. The word is used in a broad sense to encompass a number of such types of places of interment or, occasionally, burial, including:


Burial vault

Burial vaults – stone or brick-lined underground spaces for interment (rather than burial), originally vaulted, often privately owned for specific family groups; usually beneath a religious building such as a church or in a churchyard or cemetery

A burial vault is a structural underground tomb.

It is a stone or brick-lined underground space or 'burial' chamber for the interment of a dead body or bodies. They were originally and are still often vaulted and usually have stone slab entrances. They are often privately owned and used for specific family or other groups, but usually stand beneath a public religious building, such as a church, or in a churchyard or cemetery. A crypt may be used as a burial vault.


Church monument

Church monuments – within a church (or tomb-style chests in a churchyard) may be places of interment, but this is unusual; they more commonly stand over the grave or burial vault rather than containing the actual body and are therefore not tombs

The effigial monument to John Gower in Southwark Cathedral, Surrey (now London).

A church monument is an architectural or sculptural memorial to a dead person or persons, often in the form of an effigy or a wall tablet, located within a Christian church. It usually resides immediately above or close to the actual burial vault or grave, although very occasionally the tomb is constructed within it or it is a mere cenotaph.

Once only the subject of antiquarian curiosity, they are today recognised as fine works of art, as well as a highly detailed and invaluable record of antique costume and armour and, from the middle of the 15th century, of genuine face-portraiture.

Development

Thelwall's Mural monument at Oxford

Medieval period

The earliest church monuments, dating from the early 12th century, were simple stone coffin-shaped grave coverings incised with a cross or similar design. The first attempts at commemorative portraiture emerged soon afterwards, executed in low relief, horizontal but as in life. Gradually these became full high-relief effigies, usually recumbent, as in death, and, by the 14th century, with hands together in prayer. In general, such monumental effigies were carved in stone, marble or wood, or cast in bronze or brass. Often the stone effigies were painted to resemble life, but on the vast majority of medieval monuments, this has long since disappeared. The crossed-legged attitude of numerous mail-armoured knights was long supposed to imply that the deceased had served in the Crusades, but this supposition is unfounded. By the early 13th century, the effigies became raised on tomb-style chests (known as tomb chests or altar tombs) decorated with foliage, heraldry or architectural detailing. Soon such chests also stood alone with varying degrees of decorations. By the end of the century, these often had architectural canopies and figured 'weepers' (often friends or relatives identified by their coats of arms) were popular decorative features. In the 15th century these often became angels or saints and the chest might include a cadaver. The best monuments were made of alabaster. Around the 13th century, smaller two-dimensional effigies incised in plates of brass and affixed to monumental slabs of stone became popular too. These memorial brasses were somewhat cheaper and particularly popular with the emerging middle class.


In the 16th century, church monuments became increasingly influenced by Renaissance forms and detailing (pilasters, wreaths, strapwork, skulls, coffered arches, obelisks, allegorical figures, etc), particularly in France, the Netherlands and, eventually, England. There were major innovations in effigial posture, the deceased often being shown reclining or kneeling in prayer and surrounded by the whole family, as in life. Cadavers were replaced by skeletons. The 'hanging' mural or wall monument also became popular, sometimes with half-length 'demi-figures'; and also the floor-bound heraldic ledger stone. The 17th century saw an increase in classicism and the use of marble. Effigies might be sitting or standing, grief-stricken, shrouded or, unusually, rising from the grave. Busts and relief portraits were popular. High Baroque monuments were some of the grandest ever constructed. Decoration turned to cherubs, urns, drapery, garlands of fruit and flowers. In the 18th century, church monuments became more restrained, placed before two-dimensional pyramids, but more Roman-like, with the deceased often depicted in Roman dress or as a cameo-like 'medallion portrait'. The Rococo style gave more movement to these figures.


The early 19th century brought us Greek Revival monuments, some quite plain wall plaques, some with sentimental and romantically realistic figures (perhaps rising to heaven) or other devices like weeping willows. Gothic Revival followed, with the obvious return to alabaster, tomb chests and recumbent effigies. However, the Victorian age saw many differing styles, until large-scale monuments fell out of fashion at the end of the century. 20th century large-scale monuments are not unknown, but quite rare.

Examples of English church monuments

Part of the memorial placed by Ann Bellamy Lynn to her husband George at St Mary's church Southwick, Northamptonshire

The church monuments of England, in particular, have been preserved in far greater numbers and, generally, in better condition than those of other countries, and are second to none in artistic merit. Fine examples may be found in cathedrals and parish churches in every county, for example:

  • Turvey in Bedfordshire
  • Aldworth, Bisham & St. George's Chapel, Windsor in Berkshire
  • Chenies & Wing in Buckinghamshire
  • Bunbury & St. Michael's, Macclesfield in Cheshire
  • Launceston & St. Germans in Cornwall
  • Bakewell, Edensor, Kedleston & Norbury in Derbyshire
  • Gittisham & Holcombe Rogus in Devon
  • Puddletown & Sherborne Abbey in Dorset
  • Chester-le-Street & Staindrop in County Durham
  • Winchelsea & Withyam in East Sussex
  • Chipping Campden & Tewkesbury Abbey in Gloucestershire
  • St. Helen, Bishopsgate & the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London, City of London
  • Harefield, Temple Church & Westminster Abbey in Middlesex
  • Titchfield & Winchester Cathedral in Hampshire
  • Holme Lacey, Much Marcle & Ross-on-Wye in Herefordshire
  • Bishop's Hatfield & Knebworth in Hertfordshire
  • Canterbury Cathedral, Goudhurst & Lynsted in Kent
  • Bottesford & Breedon-on-the-Hill in Leicestershire
  • Lincoln Cathedral, Spilsby & St. Martin's, Stamford in Lincolnshire
  • Great Brington, Lowick, Stowe-Nine-Churches & Warkton in Northamptonshire
  • Langar & Strelley in Nottinghamshire
  • Exton & Stoke Dry in Rutland
  • Burford, Dorchester Abbey, Ewelme & Rotherfield Greys in Oxfordshire
  • Kinlet & Tong in Shropshire
  • Hinton St George & Rodney Stoke in Somerset
  • Elford & Ilam in Staffordshire
  • Framlingham & Wingfield in Suffolk
  • Bletchingley & Ockham in Surrey
  • Stratford-upon-Avon & St. Mary's Collegiate Church, Warwick in Warwickshire
  • Arundel & Boxgrove Priory in West Sussex
  • Edington Priory, Lydiard Tregoze & Salisbury Cathedral in Wiltshire
  • Croome D'Abitot & Elmley Castle in Worcestershire
  • Beverley Minster, Holy Trinity, Hull & Swine in the East Riding of Yorkshire
  • Coxwold & West Tanfield in the North Riding of Yorkshire
  • Harewood & Kirkheaton in the West Riding of Yorkshire


Crypt

Main article: Crypt

Crypts – often, though not always, for interment; similar to burial vaults but usually for more general public interment


Mausoleum

Main article: Mausoleum

Mausolea (including ancient pyramids in some countries) – external free-standing structures, above ground, acting as both monument and place of interment, usually for individuals or family groups

Megalithic and Chamber tombs

Megalithic tombs (including Chamber tombs) – prehistoric places of interment, often for large communities, constructed of large stones and originally covered with an earthen mound.

Large T shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger-Odoorn, Netherlands.

A Megalithic tomb is an over ground burial place, built by Neolithic farming communities, from large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge, and which were then covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone and may contain cremations or articulated or disarticulated inhumations which were kept in the more accessible stone chambers, unlike those simply buried underneath barrows.

European Megalithic Traditions

There is a huge variety of types and styles. The free-standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow.

Examples with outer areas, not used for burial are also known, the Court Cairns of south west Scotland and northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs of south west England and the Transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire to emphasise a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living by the builders.

The Passage graves of Orkney, Ireland's Boyne Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at Maeshowe for example is unknown elsewhere in north west Europe at the time.

Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organisation and effort required to erect these large stones mean that the societies concerned must have placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of megalithic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.

Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey. Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.

Northeast Asian Megalithic Traditions: the Korean Peninsula

Northern-style megalithic burial from Jukrim-ri, Gochang-eub, North Jeolla Province, Korea.

Northern-style

Most archaeologists are of the consensus that Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in Northeast China, in particular the Liao River basin. Koreans have noted that the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. They call the earliest megalithic burials "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-850 B.C.E.) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River. A few northern-style megaliths in China contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods at all.

Southern-style

These megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula and it is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period. Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale then northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A large heavy capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula conform to the southern type. Archaeologists estimate varyingly that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in Korea.

Representations of a dagger (right)and two human figures, one of which is kneeling (left), carved into the capstone of Megalithic Burial No. 5, Orim-dong, Yeosu, Korea.

As with northern megaliths, the excavated southern examples contain few, if any artifacts. However, some megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in a line parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.

Capstone-style

These megaliths are distinct from other types by a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, that is lined with cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700-550 B.C.E.), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive rectangularly-shaped stone-and-earthern platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56 X 18 m in size.

Chamber tomb

A chamber tomb is a tomb for burial used in many different cultures. In the case of individual burials, the chamber is thought to signify a higher status for the interree than a simple grave. Built from rock or sometimes wood, the chambers could also serve as places for storage of the dead from one family or social group and were often used over long periods for the placement of multiple burials. There are numerous terms for them depending on the period, design and region in question. Most were built from large stones or megaliths and covered by cairns, barrows or earth, but the term is also applied to tombs cut directly into rock and wooden-chambered tombs covered with earth barrows. Grave goods are a common characteristic of chamber tomb burials.

In Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe stone-built examples are known by the generic term of megalithic tombs.

Chamber tombs are often distinguished by the layout of their chambers and entrances or the shape and material of the structure that covered them, either an earth barrow or stone cairn. A wide variety of local types has been identified, and some designs appear to have influenced others.


Sarcophagus

Main article: Sarcophagus

Sarcophagi – stone containers for bodies or coffins, often decorated and perhaps part of a monument; these may stand within religious buildings or greater tombs or mausolea

Sepulchre

Sepulchres – cavernous, rock-cut or stone-built (often underground) spaces for interment, such as the tombs of ancient Egypt; however, it is generally used to refer to similar Jewish or Christian structures.

A sepulcher, or sepulchre, is a type of tomb or burial chamber. In ancient Hebrew practice, it was carved into the rock of a hillside.

The term is most often used for the sepulchral burial site of Jesus in Jerusalem, over which the Church of the Holy Sepulcher has been erected; see there for other links.

The word is sometimes confused with "sepulture," the act of burying a dead person.


Sepulchre - first mentioned as purchased by Abraham for Sarah from Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23:20). This was the "cave of the field of Machpelah", where also Abraham and Rebekah and Jacob and Leah were buried (79:29-32). In Acts 7:16 it is said that Jacob was "laid in the sepulchre that Abraham bought for a sum of money of the sons of Emmor the father of Sychem." It has been proposed, as a mode of reconciling the apparent discrepancy between this verse and Gen. 23:20, to read Acts 7:16 thus: "And they [i.e., our fathers] were carried over into Sychem, and laid in the sepulchre that Abraham bought for a sum of money from the sons of Emmor [the son] of Sychem." In this way the purchase made by Abraham is not to be confounded with the purchase made by Jacob subsequently in the same district. Of this purchase by Abraham there is no direct record in the Old Testament. (See Thomas Campbell)

Tombs of the Hebrews were generally excavated in the solid rock or were natural caves. Mention is made of such tombs in Judges 8:32; 2 Samuel 2:32; and 2 Kings 9:28; 23:30. They were sometimes made in gardens (2 Kings 21:26; 23:16; Matthew 27:60). They are found in great numbers in and around Jerusalem and all over the land. They were sometimes whitewashed (Matthew 23:27, 29). The body of Jesus was laid in Joseph of Arimathea's new rock-hewn tomb, in a garden near to Calvary perhaps the site of the Holy Sepulchre.

The mouth of such rocky tombs was usually closed by a large stone (Hebrew golal), which could only be removed by the united efforts of several men (Matthew 28:2; John 11:39)


Ship burial

File:Semiradski.jpg
Ship burial of Igor the Old in 945, depicted by Heinrich Semiradski (1845-1902).

A ship burial or boat grave is a burial in which a ship or boat is used either as a container for the dead and the grave goods, or as a part of the grave goods itself. If the ship is very small, it is called a boat grave. This style of burial was used in the Vendel era and by the Anglo Saxons, the Merovingians, the Vikings and occasionally the Ancient Egyptians. This burial was seen as a way for the dead to sail to Valhalla, ship burial was a high honour.

Gokstad Viking ship excavation. Photographed in ~1880

Examples of ship burials

  • Khufu ship Giza pyramid complex, (Fourth Dynasty)
  • Gokstad, Norway
  • Ladby, Denmark
  • Oseberg, Norway
  • Snape, East Anglia, England
  • Sutton Hoo, East Anglia, England
  • Tune, Norway
  • Valsgärde, Sweden
  • Vendel, Sweden
  • Rurikovo gorodishche near Novgorod
  • Sarskoye Gorodishche near Rostov
  • Timerevo near Yaroslavl
  • Black Grave near Chernigov
  • Ibn Fadlan gives an eye-witness account of a 10th century ship burial.

Martyrium

Martyrium - final resting place for the remains of a martyr or saint, such as San Pietro in Montorio


References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • This entry incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897.
  • Crossley, FH (1921). English Church Monuments AD 1150-1550. Batsford
  • Esdaile, KA (1946). English Church Monuments 1510-1840. Batsford
  • Kemp, B (1980). English Church Monuments. Batsford
  • Nelson, Sarah M.
1993 The Archaeology of Korea. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.


External links


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