Temple

From New World Encyclopedia
Revision as of 17:24, 1 August 2006 by Chris Jensen (talk | contribs)

Temples (from the Latin: templum ("sacred place")) are structures built for the related purposes of religious ritual and worship. These constructions serve a variety of functions in the lives of religious adherents, as they are places for devotion, prayer, celebration, and ritual activity. In short, temples are an essential part of many religious traditions because they provide a physical location for connecting with the divine.

Many traditions interpret the physical and symbolic characteristics of their temples as being representations of divine power. Though on the surface these temples exhibit great variety in their dizzying assortments of architectural styles and iconographic images, this multiplicity conceals a universal concern with the creation of a "sacred space". Indeed, most religions have a house of worship that they consider to be especially sacred, whether it be a mosque, temple, church or gurdwara. Further, in many religious traditions (even among those that do not use physical temples), the metaphorical connotations of the term are still important, as they can be applied macrocosmically (viewing the entire universe as a temple of God) and microcosmically (viewing one's own body as a temple of divine energy, power and love).

Rationale of Temples

The emergence of temples developed concurrently in various cultures around the world. It appears that many early cultures were fascinated with the appearance of constellations and stars found in the sky, and accordingly worship rituals often took place under the firmament in open-air alters. Over time, the perceived significance of the sacred geometry seen in the constellations was emulated and mimicked on earth in the construction of immense temples that appeared to literally touch the sky. Many of these temples were built to align with the stars (symbolizing the heavens) and the various Zodiac systems. In India and Southeast Asia, temples were often designed in the form of sacred mandalas representing the cosmos, and in Egypt and Meso-America stars also played an important role in temple orientation and alignment. Thus, sacred geometry and sacred space were important aspects of temple design and conceptualization. In Jerusalem, a massive temple was constructed to house the Ark of the Covenant to protect it and add to its sacredness.

Despite the common function of temples as a representation of sacred space, it is also true that temples in different religions do have their own distinct characteristics. A cross-section of different temple styles in various cultures is seen below.

Temples of the Mediterranean and Near East

Egyptian Temples

The Egyptian temple style is one that lasted from the Old Kingdom in the third millenium b.c.e.. into the the period of Roman rule - out of respect and admiration for the ancient tradition even foreign occupiers did not impose their temple designs on Egypt. The basic layout was along an axis, beginning at a gate, flanked by towers, proceeding inward to the central shrine, which housed an image of the deity to which the temple was dedicated. Aside from the central axis were rooms for storage of sacred items and administration of the temple. As one progressed inward towards the shrine one noticed that the level of the floor steadily rises; as well, the height of the ceiling decreases, resulting in an ever shrinking passage that suggests a rising of the earth and the lowering of the heavens. The entire complex was surrounded by high walls.

Ritual was of central importance to Egyptian religion, and thus was central to the function of the temple. The central shrine that housed the image of the deity was considered a home for the deity, and rituals performed therein were done so for the benefit of the deity. The central shrine was the domain of the priests, as were the rituals performed, and not available to the average devotee. These rituals were performed daily; however, during temple processions the image and special ceremonial boats were carried by the priests from the interior of the temple to the exterior, involving the average person in worship.

Greek and Roman Temples

Athens, Temple of Hephaestus

Before the advent of Greek temples worship was done on open air altars. Similarities suggest that the Greeks may have been inspired by the Egyptians in temple construction, however the evidence is incomplete, and if it were the case the differences between the two styles indicates that the Greeks certainly were responsible for much innovation of their own. Classical and Hellenistic Greek temples are distinquished by their layout: single rectangular rooms housing images, adorned with ornate columns, built with a porch at the entrance, and containing an altar for sacrifice. The column styles were dependant on the region in which they were to stand; indeed, the particular deity housed in the temple was dependant on the interests of the worshippers.

The Greek temple of Xanthos displayed in the British Museum.

Though similarities between Egyptian and Greek temples might be present, differences in function are certain. While the central space of the Egyptian temple is reserved for the priests, Greek temple worship was an affair in which everyone could participate. The temples were often associated with specific festivals, and the orientation of the temple was such that the entrance would face the rising sun on the day of the festival. The layout was designed to let both the spectators and the effigy of the deity watch the sacrifices being performed in the temple.

Roman temples were originally based on the Etruscan style, though they adopted the Hellenized style to a degree, maintaining the high bases and single set of steps of their Etruscan neighbors. Unlike the the Greek style, the Romans would rarely surround their temples with columns, often only adorning the facade in this manner. The Roman style allowed for circular temples, like the Pantheon in Rome, unthinkable in the Greek style. The altar was placed at the foot of the steps, and thus was faced rather than surrounded. Roman temples were important for religious festivals, but could serve as secular buildings when necessary.

Biblical Temple

A model of Herod's Temple adjacent to the Shrine of the Book exhibit at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Though temples throughout ancient Israel are recorded in the Hebrew Bible and found in archaeological expeditions, the primary temples of Judaism are the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. The First Temple is often dated from between 960 - 950 B.C.E. to its destruction by the Babylonians in 587-586 B.C.E. The Second Temple is dated from 516 B.C.E. to 70 C.E.

The first temple, built in the reign of Solomon, was an elliptical structure, made of stone and cedar. It had a courtyard at it's entrance, with an altar for burnt offerings. Inside the temple was divided into two sections. The first, nearest the entrance, was the Great Hall. Within the hall was an incense altar. The more important room, entered after passing through the Great Hall, was the shrine, called the Holy of Holies. Within the shrine was the Ark of the Covenant and two large images of cherubs above the Ark. This room was built upon an enormous rock, called the "foundation stone". The inside of the temple was decorated with gold. The temple also had storehouses, in which items for worship could be housed. Various embellishments and renovations were made over the centuries, often in accord with the political situation.

The second temple, built after the Babylonian Exile, was built upon the same site and used a similar plan as the first, though it was more impressive in size. The shrine, though still considered the dwelling place of the God of Israel, no longer contained the Ark of the Covenant. Like the first temple, the new temple would see a number of renovations, most importantly under the Hasmoneans and Herod.

A good idea of what temple practice looked like at the temple in Jerusalem can be gleaned from a number of sources, specifically the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Worship was focused on sacrifice, performed during the day, at dusk, and on important occasions such as Sabbaths and festivals, as public rituals. Offerings were also made as atonement for sin - an example of private ritual. Practice at the Biblical temple included private and public worship. Sacrifices took many forms: livestock, grains, produce, and currency. Livestock, such as cattle or sheep, could be burned in whole or in part to ash. Those parts not burned (if any, dependant on the ritual) would be cooked and eaten by donors and priests. First fruits and harvests were common offerings. As well, wheat flour turned to dough through mixing with oils could be burned and eaten. Prayers and song accompanied sacrifice.

Temples in India

Hindu Temples

A Hindu temple is called a mandir in Hindi, koyil in Tamil and gudi in Telugu. Shown here is the famous Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, India.

The first appearance of structures that can be thought of as proper Hindu temples was in the fifth century C.E.. The precursors to these were shrines set up around important objects, such as trees, lingas and other items. These sites were often somewhat open, enclosed by railings or gates. When Hindu temples did begin to appear in India they were most often made of stone and were more substantial structures. However, the role they played was similar to the function of the earlier shrines; that is, to house a focal point for worship and ritual.

The central element of the Hindu temple is the image of the deity, and the fundamental function of the temple is to serve as a location for ritual. Though the image is of primary importance, it is understood that the image is only a representation of an ultimate reality. Hindu temples are also venues for religious dance in music, which takes place in assembly halls within the temple complex. Important forms of devotion that occur within the temple are the approach to, revealling and circumambulation of the image. Most often the major entrance to the temple is the Eastern gate, though often there are gates on all sides. The approach from the entrance to the image along the major axis is meant to represent an ascent to the sanctuary and convey a sense of mystery to the worshipper.

Though much variety exists in Hindu temple construction, there are principles that are recognized in temple construction. An important text relating to the construction of temples (and other structures) is the Brhat Samhita, written in the sixth century C.E. by Varahamihira. Temple layout is inspired by creation mythology, recounting the story of the first sacrifice of Vastupurusha, who was dismembered by devas to create the world. The plan is an eight square by eight square mandala (sixty-four squares total), the four central squares dedicated to Brahman, while other sections of the plan are dedicated to Indra, Agni, and other members of the Hindu pantheon. In this way the Hindu temple is a monument and constant reminder of creation, a visual and spatial allusion to Vastupurusha. As well, the central place of Brahman, serving as the point from which the temple extends in the four cardinal directions, attests to Brahman's pivotal role in creation.

The sanctuary of the temple, which houses the image of the deity, is meant to represent a womb, simultaneously a symbol of divine power and potential. Also important is the often massive and storied roof of the temple, representing a mountain, a symbol of strength and endurance. This allusion can be implied or explicit, dependant on the temple. These temple designs are most frequent in the North of India, while South Indian Hindu temples grew to resemble the abodes of secular rulers over time. Some temples are fortress-like in appearance, and this is not lost on the designers. Just as the temple is a reminder of creation it is also a defence against the dangers of chaos.

Buddhist Temples

Like the precursors to temples in the Hindu tradition, early sites of worship in Buddhism were not buildings but important sites enclosed by simple fences. After the death of the Buddha sites called stupas were built to house relics or mark special sites. Originally few in number and quite modest, stupa building became a passion for the religious king Asoka, who re-distributed Buddhist relics as part of a large-scale stupa building project. Stupa construction was not only the domain of rulers, however; many stupas were built by the Buddhist sangha and devoted laity.

In time the simple stupa complex evolved to become what would be recognized as a temple. Early Buddhists were not concerned with the worship of Buddha when participating in stupa activities, but rather using the stupa as a lens to focus on important Buddhist teachings. As well, the stupa had in its construction a reference to the concept of the "cosmic egg", a principle idea in creation mythology - and in this way these Buddhist shrines were similar to those used by Hindus. Over time it was recognized that the stupa, being of prime importance, needed to be protected from the elements - eventually a shelter of some kind would surround a shrine. These shelters constitute the Buddhist temple in India.

Following the introduction of the Bodhisattva doctrine Buddhist practice images became used in practice more frequently. These would be housed within the temple complex, as well as the stupa. Aisles would point towards what can be thought of as the apse of the temple, where the stupa is located. Temples would also house wandering monks and pilgrims in simple cells built into the temples. Like the temples in other traditions, over time Buddhist temples would grow in size and complexity, evolving into massive complexes.

Temples in Asia

Chinese Temples

Temples in China share a great deal of common characteristics, whether they are Buddhist, Daoist (Taoist), Confucian, or associated with a folk tradition. In line with the Chinese approach to spirituality, the boundaries between different traditions need not be emphasized. This is clear when the parellels between temples with different religious affiliations are compared. For instance, the materials from which all temples are built is often timber, depending on availability; in the northern regions of China brick is employed alongside timber. Similarities are broader than simply construction materials, however: even secular buildings are composed of similar stuff, due to necessity. It can be said the Chinese temple style is somewhat universal amongst Chinese religions, though each tradition adds its own nuance to its particular buildings.

A standard incense burner found in most Chinese temples.

Beyond construction materials similarities can be found in architectural style - temple complexes are often arranged in similar ways. The complex is made up of halls (rectangular structure with large entrances on the front and back) and pavillions (open air structures, consisting of benches beneath a roof supported by slender poles). The entire complex is surrounded by a wall, with an especially elaborate gate at the entrance. The main entrances to all temples in China is situated at the South end of the complex - this is in accordance with the principles of feng shui. It is thought that evil spirits enter from the North, thus a Southern entrance limits their access. However, for practical reasons, smaller gates are usually found on most or all sides of a larger temple complex. Because the main entrance is at the southmost part of the temple complex, the main hall of the temple is often located at the northmost part. Thus major halls are often oriented on a North-South axis, just as the temple complex is. Other halls are often situated on the West or East side of the major axis, and often have their entrances oriented towards the center axis.

The Temple of Heaven, a famous temple in Beijing

Decoration of temples often follows the universal scheme. The most prevalent colors are red and green, usually with gold detail. Similar themes can be found, regardless of the temple's affiliation: signs of the Chinese zodiac are popular, alongwith elaborate dragons, phoenixes, and other mythological creatures. Though central images will be different, depedant on the variety of temple (for instance, one expects images of Buddha and bodhisattvas at a Buddhist center), the location of the images in the halls is uniform. The layout and style of Chinese temples often share characteristics with buildings designated for the military or administrative purposes. In the open courtyards one will often find trees and incense burners, used to make offerings to the deities represented in the halls.

Temples in China are used primarily for the offering of gifts and devotion to the deities or bodhisattvas to which the temple (or particular hall within a temple) is dedicated. This is often a practice involving the burning of incense, chanting and prostration. Temples may also be the site of religious festivities, involving rituals, music and dance. As well, temples often have living compounds to house monks and nuns that live and work at the temple. Historically the emperor of China would use temples (most often the Temple of Heaven in modern Beijing) as a place to perform sacrifices and prayers to Heaven to secure a productive harvest season.

Buddhist Temples

A great deal of Buddhist temple architecture in China was derived from Indian Buddhist temples, transmitted with Buddhist teachings via Central Asia in the third and fourth centuries C.E. The most identifiable influence of Indian Buddhist architecture is the pagoda - the Chinese interpretation of the stupa. Like the stupa, the pagoda serves as a repository for important artefacts, most often scriptures and images, but occasionally relics. However, the pagoda became a focus for the Chinese Buddhist temple, being built on scales that greatly exceeded their Indian predecessors. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty temples built bore a resemblance to Tibetan Buddhist temples, due to the close links between Mongol leaders and the Tibetan Buddhist community.

Daoist Temples

In Daoism's philosophical beginnings there was little need for temples; the ideal of separation from society indicated temple construction to be counter-productive. However, the need for Daoist temples grew due to two developments that coincided during the early and middle part of the first millenium: the introduction of Buddhism on a large scale and the development of "religious" Daoism. This shift in the popular perception of Daoism suggested that this native Chinese religion needed to address the foreign tradition of Buddhism and had to do so in the context of the community. Thus the emergence of Daoist temples roughly coincides with the emergence of Buddhist temples in China. It is not surprising then that a great deal of Buddhist temple style is found in Daoist temples. Aside from different imagery (Daoist rather than Buddhist) the two are quite similar in appearance. Daoist temples can be found throughout China, but important complexes can be found in abundance at any of the five sacred peaks, most notably Tai Shan.

Confucian Temples

Confucian temples are the more unique of the three common temples found in China. Though Confucius was not popularly acknowledged in his own time (at least not on the scale that following generations would), the first Confucian temple was built around 478 B.C.E. in his hometown, modern Qufu. The general layout is similar to other temples, but the emphasis on images is significantly scaled back; the focus is on teachings rather than devotion. Evidence for this is found in the absence of major images (aside from the occasional statue of Confucius, a concession to the devotionally minded) and the abundance of lecture halls and, in larger complexes, stele with important works inscribed on them. Traditionally, the activities in a Confucian temple were related to classical learning, especially of music and ritual. Currently a major celebration held at Confucian temples is Confucius' birthday. In terms of numbers Confucian temples are surpassed by both Buddhist temples and Daoist temples in modern China.

Japanese and Korean Temples

Just as Buddhist architectural styles were transmitted to China alongside Buddhist teaching, Korea and Japan inherited temple styles from China with the introduction of Buddhism to these regions. Like China, however, Korean and Japanese temple planners made changes, either of necessity or to suit local taste. Korean buildings were more likely to be built of stone than Chinese temples, similar to the temples found in the Northern regions of China. When Japanese forms of Buddhism entered more esoteric phases temples became less about prestige and grew more modest, and included sections for rituals performed by monks in private.

Temples in the Americas

Mesoamerican Temples

Modern interpretations of the temples found throughout Mexico and Central America are based on what has been left standing and the records of early European explorers. As a result understanding of these structures is incomplete, though much information is available. The form of these temples, probably originating with the Olmecs and continued by a variety of groups, most popularly the Mayans, persisted for two and a half millenia. Important sites can still be visited in modern Mexico and Guatemala, though they are no longer used for their original purposes.

The standard style placed the temple atop a massive artificial pyramid. From the temple's main entrance a staircase lead to the foot of the pyramid, at which an open space was found, perhaps the site of a large altar. The pyramids were built from either compressed earth or mud brick, and could contain the bodies and paraphernalia of deceased rulers. The evolution of the actual temples can be traced archeologically, beginning with simple enclosures and progressing to complex masonry constructions. The temples contained ornate effigies of deities and were decorated with masks on the exterior. The scale of the pyramids were meant to convey a sense of prestige and power, often rising above surrounding florae and always towering over surrounding buildings.

The role of the temple in the Mesoamerican world was to serve as a center of ritual for religious practice. The size of the sanctuary in the temple was likely too small to be of use for the average participant, and probably was used only by priests or leaders. Community worship was likely conducted at the base of the pyramid. Evidence suggests that temples were commissioned by rulers, and successive advances in scale and complexity were to be testaments to their reigns.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Levine, Baruch A. "Biblical Temple" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, pg. 202-208, edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353
  • Lip, Evelyn. "Chinese Temples an Deities". Times Books International, 1981. ISBN 9971650533
  • Mehta, Rustam J. "Masterpieces of Indian Temples". D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., 1974.
  • Meister, Michael W., et al. "Temple" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, pg. 368-389, edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.