Temple

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The word "temple" generally refers to a structure built for the purpose of worship or ritual, or a structure that in some other way serves as a sacred space. Temple practice, construction and importance vary greatly between traditions. The English word is derived from the Latin word templum ("sacred place").

Temples in India

Hindu Temples

A Hindu temple is called a mandir in Hindi, koyil in Tamil and gudi in Telugu. Shown here is the famous Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, India.

Buddhist Temples

Temples in Asia

Chinese Temples

Temples in China share a great deal of common characteristics, whether they are Buddhist, Daoist (Taoist), Confucian, or associated with a folk tradition. In line with the Chinese approach to spirituality, the boundaries between different traditions need not be emphasized. This is clear when the parellels between temples with different religious affiliations are compared. For instance, the materials from which all temples are built is often timber, depending on availability; in the northern regions of China brick is employed alongside timber. Similarities are broader than simply construction materials, however: even secular buildings are composed of similar stuff, due to necessity. It can be said the Chinese temple style is somewhat universal amongst Chinese religions, though each tradition adds its own nuance to its particular buildings.

Beyond construction materials similarities can be found in architectural style - temple complexes are often arranged in similar ways. The complex is made up of halls (rectangular structure with large entrances on the front and back) and pavillions (open air structures, consisting of benches beneath a roof supported by slender poles). The entire complex is surrounded by a wall, with an especially elaborate gate at the entrance. The main entrances to all temples in China is situated at the South end of the complex - this is in accordance with the principles of feng shui. It is thought that evil spirits enter from the North, thus a Southern entrance limits their access. However, for practical reasons, smaller gates are usually found on most or all sides of a larger temple complex. Because the main entrance is at the southmost part of the temple complex, the main hall of the temple is often located at the northmost part. Thus major halls are often oriented on a North-South axis, just as the temple complex is. Other halls are often situated on the West or East side of the major axis, and often have their entrances oriented towards the center axis.

The Temple of Heaven, a famous temple in Beijing

Decoration of temples often follows the universal scheme. The most prevalent colors are red and green, usually with gold detail. Similar themes can be found, regardless of the temple's affiliation: signs of the Chinese zodiac are popular, alongwith elaborate dragons, phoenixes, and other mythological creatures. Though central images will be different, depedant on the variety of temple (for instance, one expects images of Buddha and bodhisattvas at a Buddhist center), the location of the images in the halls is uniform. The layout and style of Chinese temples often share characteristics with buildings designated for the military or administrative purposes. In the open courtyards one will often find trees and incense burners, used to make offerings to the deities represented in the halls.

Temples in China are used primarily for the offering of gifts and devotion to the deities or bodhisattvas to which the temple (or particular hall within a temple) is dedicated. This is often a practice involving the burning of incense, chanting and prostration. Temples may also be the site of religious festivities, involving rituals, music and dance. As well, temples often have living compounds to house monks and nuns that live and work at the temple. Historically the emperor of China would use temples (most often the Temple of Heaven in modern Beijing) as a place to perform sacrifices and prayers to Heaven to secure a productive harvest season.

Buddhist Temples

A great deal of Buddhist temple architecture in China was derived from Indian Buddhist temples, transmitted with Buddhist teachings via Central Asia in the third and fourth centuries C.E. The most identifiable influence of Indian Buddhist architecture is the pagoda - the Chinese interpretation of the stupa. Like the stupa, the pagoda serves as a repository for important artefacts, most often scriptures and images, but occasionally relics. However, the pagoda became a focus for the Chinese Buddhist temple, being built on scales that greatly exceeded their Indian predecessors. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty temples built bore a resemblance to Tibetan Buddhist temples, due to the close links between Mongol leaders and the Tibetan Buddhist community.

Daoist Temples

In Daoism's philosophical beginnings there was little need for temples; the ideal of separation from society indicated temple construction to be counter-productive. However, the need for Daoist temples grew due to two developments that coincided during the early and middle part of the first millenium: the introduction of Buddhism on a large scale and the development of "religious" Daoism. This shift in the popular perception of Daoism suggested that this native Chinese religion needed to address the foreign tradition of Buddhism and had to do so in the context of the community. Thus the emergence of Daoist temples roughly coincides with the emergence of Buddhist temples in China. It is not surprising then that a great deal of Buddhist temple style is found in Daoist temples. Aside from different imagery (Daoist rather than Buddhist) the two are quite similar in appearance. Daoist temples can be found throughout China, but important complexes can be found in abundance at any of the five sacred peaks, most notably Tai Shan.

Confucian Temples

Confucian temples are the more unique of the three common temples found in China. Though Confucius was not popularly acknowledged in his own time (at least not on the scale that following generations would), the first Confucian temple was built around 478 B.C.E. in his hometown, modern Qufu. The general layout is similar to other temples, but the emphasis on images is significantly scaled back; the focus is on teachings rather than devotion. Evidence for this is found in the absence of major images (aside from the occasional statue of Confucius, a concession to the devotionally minded) and the abundance of lecture halls and, in larger complexes, stele with important works inscribed on them. Traditionally, the activities in a Confucian temple were related to classical learning, especially of music and ritual. Currently a major celebration held at Confucian temples is Confucius' birthday. In terms of numbers Confucian temples are surpassed by both Buddhist temples and Daoist temples in modern China.

Japanese and Korean Temples

Just as Buddhist architectural styles were transmitted to China alongside Buddhist teaching, Korea and Japan inherited temple styles from China with the introduction of Buddhism to these regions. Like China, however, Korean and Japanese temple planners made changes, either of necessity or to suit local taste. Korean buildings were more likely to be built of stone than Chinese temples, similar to the temples found in the Northern regions of China. When Japanese forms of Buddhism entered more esoteric phases temples became less about prestige and grew more modest, and included sections for rituals performed by monks in private.

Temples in the Mediterranean and Near East

Egyptian Temples

The Egyptian temple style is one that lasted from the Old Kingdom in the third millenium B.C.E. into the the period of Roman rule - out of respect and admiration for the ancient tradition even foreign occupiers did not impose their temple designs on Egypt. The basic layout was along an axis, beginning at a gate, flanked by towers, proceeding inward to the central shrine, which housed an image of the deity to which the temple was dedicated. Aside from the central axis were rooms for storage of sacred items and administration of the temple. As one progressed inward towards the shrine one noticed that the level of the floor steadily rises; as well, the height of the ceiling decreases, resulting in an ever shrinking passage that suggests a rising of the earth and the lowering of the heavens. The entire complex was surrounded by high walls.

Ritual was of central importance to Egyptian religion, and thus was central to the function of the temple. The central shrine that housed the image of the deity was considered a home for the deity, and rituals performed therein were done so for the benefit of the deity. The central shrine was the domain of the priests, as were the rituals performed, and not available to the average devotee. These rituals were performed daily; however, during temple processions the image and special ceremonial boats were carried by the priests from the interior of the temple to the exterior, involving the average person in worship.

Greek and Roman Temples

Athens, Temple of Hephaestus

Before the advent of Greek temples worship was done on open air altars. Similarities suggest that the Greeks may have been inspired by the Egyptians in temple construction, however the evidence is incomplete, and if it were the case the differences between the two styles indicates that the Greeks certainly were responsible for much innovation of their own. Classical and Hellenistic Greek temples are distinquished by their layout: single rectangular rooms housing images, adorned with ornate columns, built with a porch at the entrance, and containing an altar for sacrifice. The column styles were dependant on the region in which they were to stand; indeed, the particular deity housed in the temple was dependant on the interests of the worshippers.

The Greek temple of Xanthos displayed in the British Museum.

Though similarities between Egyptian and Greek temples might be present, differences in function are certain. While the central space of the Egyptian temple is reserved for the priests, Greek temple worship was an affair in which everyone could participate. The temples were often associated with specific festivals, and the orientation of the temple was such that the entrance would face the rising sun on the day of the festival. The layout was designed to let both the spectators and the effigy of the deity watch the sacrifices being performed in the temple.

Roman temples were originally based on the Etruscan style, though they adopted the Hellenized style to a degree, maintaining the high bases and single set of steps of their Etruscan neighbors. Unlike the the Greek style, the Romans would rarely surround their temples with columns, often only adorning the facade in this manner. The Roman style allowed for circular temples, like the Pantheon in Rome, unthinkable in the Greek style. The altar was placed at the foot of the steps, and thus was faced rather than surrounded. Roman temples were important for religious festivals, but could serve as secular buildings when necessary.

Biblical Temple

Though temples throughout ancient Israel are recorded in the Hebrew Bible and found in archaeological expeditions, the primary temples of Judaism are the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. The First Temple is often dated from between 960 - 950 B.C.E. to its destruction by the Babylonians in 587-586 B.C.E. The Second Temple is dated from 516 B.C.E. to 70 C.E.

The first temple, built in the reign of Solomon, was an elliptical structure, made of stone and cedar. It had a courtyard at it's entrance, with an altar for burnt offerings. Inside the temple was divided into two sections. The first, nearest the entrance, was the Great Hall. Within the hall was an incense altar. The more important room, entered after passing through the Great Hall, was the shrine, called the Holy of Holies. Within the shrine was the Ark of the Covenant and two large images of cherubs above the Ark. This room was built upon an enormous rock, called the "foundation stone". The inside of the temple was decorated with gold.


Temples in the Americas

Mesoamerican Temples

Modern interpretations of the temples found throughout Mexico and Central America are based on what has been left standing and the records of earlyl European explorers. As a result understanding of these structures is incomplete, though much information is available. The form of these temples, probably originating with the Olmecs and continued by a variety of groups, most popularly the Mayans, persisted for two and a half millenia. Important sites can still be visited in modern Mexico and Guatemala, though they are no longer used for their original purposes.

The standard style placed the temple atop a massive artificial pyramid. From the temple's main entrance a staircase lead to the foot of the pyramid, at which an open space was found, perhaps the site of a large altar. The pyramids were built from either compressed earth or mud brick, and could contain the bodies and paraphernalia of deceased rulers. The evolution of the actual temples can be traced archeologically, beginning with simple enclosures and progressing to complex masonry constructions. The temples contained ornate effigies of deities and were decorated with masks on the exterior. The scale of the pyramids were meant to convey a sense of prestige and power, often rising above surrounding florae and always towering over surrounding buildings.

The role of the temple in the Mesoamerican world was to serve as a center of ritual for religious practice. The size of the sanctuary in the temple was likely too small to be of use for the average participant, and probably was used only by priests or leaders. Community worship was likely conducted at the base of the pyramid. Evidence suggests that temples were commissioned by rulers, and successive advances in scale and complexity were to be testaments to their reigns.

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