Difference between revisions of "Temple" - New World Encyclopedia

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Temples (from the [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''templum'' ("sacred place")) are structures built for the related purposes of religious ritual and worship. These constructions serve a variety of functions in the lives of religious adherents, as they are places for devotion, prayer, celebration,  and ritual activity. In short, temples are an essential part of many religious traditions because they provide a physical location for connecting with the divine. 
 
  
In addition, many traditions attempt to represent divine power through the the physical and symbolic characteristics of their temples. Though on the surface these structures exhibit a dizzying array of [[architecture|architectural]] styles and [[iconography|iconographic]] images, this multiplicity conceals a universal concern with the creation of a "sacred space". Most religions center around such a ''space'', whether it be termed "mosque", "temple", "church" or "gurdwara".  This theme is so central to human religiosity that virtually all religions (even those who do not use temples) make use of the metaphorical connotations of the term, as it provides a symbol that can be utilized both macrocosmically (viewing the entire universe as a temple of God) and microcosmically (viewing one's own body as a temple of divine energy, power and love).  
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[[Image:Hephaistos.temple.AC.02.jpg|right|thumb|250px| Athens, Temple of Hephaestus]]
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A '''Temple''' (from the [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''templum'' "sacred place") is a house of worship used primarily for the purposes of religious devotion. Temples serve a variety of functions in the lives of a religious community: as places for ritual, worship, celebration, sacrifice, and communal activity. Most religions have temples of some sort, whether they are termed "mosque," "mandir," "church," or "gurdwara." Temples are an essential part of many religious traditions because they are believed to represent a physical location for connecting with the divine. In addition, ancient temples frequently functioned as a social center, like a City Hall with scribes and record keepers. Sometimes they were a place of refuge and care for widows, orphans, the handicapped, the sick, and refugees from war.<ref> Leick, Gwendolyn, ''The Babylonians: An Introduction.'' (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 77-78, 109-128. ISBN 0415253152</ref> There was no separation of religion and state in the ancient world.
  
== Rationale for the Use of Temples ==
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The various temples of the world exhibit a vast array of [[architecture|architectural]] and [[iconography|iconographic]] styles. However, they share the same common interest in creating a "sacred space" in which to commune with the divine. This theme is so central to human religiosity that virtually all religions (even those who do not use temples) make use of the metaphorical connotations of the term, as it provides a symbol that can be utilized both macrocosmically (viewing the entire universe as a temple of God) and microcosmically (viewing one's own body as a temple of divine energy, power, and love).
  
In exploring the archaeological remains of various pre-literate cultures, it appears that temple cults developed concurrently in various locations around the world. As a result of this cotemporaneous development, which was deemed far too significant to be a mere coincidence, scholars of religion developed a hypothetical timeline to account for it.
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== Historical Origins of Temples ==
  
They argue, based on archaeological evidence, that many early cultures were fascinated with the appearance of constellations and stars in the sky, which motivated them to conduct worship rituals under the firmament, at open-air altars.  Over time, it is thought that these early religious adherents began to construct physical structures that emulated the sacred geometry seen in the constellations and other majestic natural phenomena. This allowed them to re-create (through architecture and symbol) the sense of sacredness that they experienced in nature. For example, temples in India and Southeast Asia were often designed in the form of sacred mandalas representing the cosmos, and, likewise, Egyptian and Meso-American temples were often oriented and aligned with the positions of various stars and planets. In a similar manner, the early Israelites felt it necessary to construct a massive temple (whose measurements were numerically tied to their cosmological views) as a fitting place to house the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. In all of the above cases, the temples are constructed to create a ''sacred space'', within which the religious adherents believed they could commune with the Divine. This understanding is congruent with many approaches taken in modern religious studies: it centers on the an understanding of sacred space (as per Mircea Eliade), of the Holy as a possible motivator of human action (as per Rudolf Otto), and of the human tendency to explore the world through metaphors and symbols (as per Susanne Langer, Michel Foucault and other [[semiotics|semioticians]]).
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In exploring the archaeological remains of various pre-literate cultures, it appears that the practice of worship in temples developed concurrently in various locations around the world. As a result of this contemporaneous development, which was deemed far too significant to be a mere coincidence, scholars of religion developed a hypothetical timeline to account for it.  
  
Despite the common function of temples as a representation of sacred space, it is also true that the temples of different religious traditions do have their own distinctive characteristics. To explore this more fully, a cross-section of temples from various cultures is presented below.
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They argue, based on archaeological evidence, that many early cultures were fascinated with the appearance of constellations and stars in the sky, which motivated them to conduct worship rituals under the firmament, at open-air altars. Over time, it is thought that these early religious adherents began to construct physical structures that emulated the sacred geometry seen in the constellations and other majestic natural phenomena. This allowed them to re-create (through architecture and symbol) the sense of sacredness that they experienced in nature. For example, temples in India and Southeast Asia were often designed in the form of sacred mandalas representing the cosmos, and, likewise, Egyptian and Meso-American temples were often oriented and aligned with the positions of various stars and planets. In a similar manner, the early Israelites felt it necessary to construct a massive temple (whose measurements were numerically tied to their cosmological views) as a fitting place to house the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. In all of the above cases, the temples were constructed to create a ''sacred space'' within which the religious adherents believed they could commune with the Divine. This understanding is congruent with many approaches taken in modern [[religious studies]]: it centers on the an understanding of sacred space (as per Mircea Eliade), of the Holy as a possible motivator of human action (as per Rudolf Otto), and of the human tendency to explore the world through metaphors and symbols (as per Susanne Langer, Michel Foucault, and other [[semiotics|semioticians]]).
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Despite the common function of temples as a representation of sacred space, it is also true that the temples of different religious traditions do have their own distinctive characteristics. To explore this more fully, a cross-section of temples from various cultures is presented below.
  
 
==Temples of the Mediterranean and Near East==
 
==Temples of the Mediterranean and Near East==
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===Egyptian Temples===
 
===Egyptian Temples===
  
The Egyptian temple cult, characterized by monumental construction and involved rituals, flourished from the period of the Old Kingdom (third millenium b.c.e.) into the the period of Roman rule (near the beginning of the common era). Their traditions were so well-established that even foreign occupiers (prior to the Christian period) did not impose their temple designs on Egypt.  
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Egyptian temple practice, characterized by monumental construction and involved rituals, flourished from the period of the Old Kingdom (third millennium B.C.E.) into the period of Roman rule. Their traditions were so well-established that even foreign occupiers (prior to the Christian period) did not impose their temple designs on Egypt.  
  
Architecturally, Egyptian temples were laid out along an axis, beginning at a gate, flanked by towers, proceeding inward to the central shrine, which housed an image of the deity to which the temple was dedicated. Aside from the central axis were rooms for storage of sacred items and administration of the temple. Progressed inward towards the shrine, the level of the floor was gradually graded upward; as well, the height of the ceiling steadily decreased, resulting in an ever shrinking passage, suggestive of a rising of the earth and the lowering of the heavens. The entire complex was surrounded by high walls.  
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Architecturally, Egyptian temples were laid out along an axis, beginning at a gate, flanked by towers, proceeding inward to the central shrine that housed an image of the deity to which the temple was dedicated. On either side of the central axis were rooms for storage of sacred items and administration of the temple. Progressing inward toward the shrine, the level of the floor was gradually graded upward. Also, the height of the ceiling steadily decreased, resulting in an ever shrinking passage, suggestive of a rising of the earth and the lowering of the heavens. The entire complex was surrounded by high walls.  
  
Ritual was of central importance to Egyptian religion, and thus was central to the function of the temple. The central shrine that housed the image of the deity was considered a home for the deity, and rituals performed therein were done so for the benefit of the deity. As such, the central shrine was seen as being a highly sacred space, making it solely the domain of the priests and rendering it unavailable to the average devotee. These esoteric rituals, which included sacrifices and prayers, were performed daily; however, at various significant times during the year (especially the beginning of flood season), temple processions carried the divine images and special ceremonial boats from the interior of the temple to the exterior, involving the average person in worship.
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Ritual was of seminal importance to Egyptian religion, and accordingly was central to the function of the temple. The main shrine that housed the image of the deity was considered a home for the deity, and rituals performed therein were done so for the benefit of the deity. As such, the main shrine was seen as being a highly sacred space, making it solely the domain of the priests and rendering it unavailable to the average devotee. These rituals, which included sacrifices and prayers, were performed daily. However, at various significant times during the year (especially the beginning of flood season), temple processions carried the divine images and special ceremonial boats from the interior of the temple to the exterior, involving the average person in worship.
  
 
===Greek and Roman Temples===
 
===Greek and Roman Temples===
  
[[Image:Hephaistos.temple.AC.02.jpg|left|thumb| Athens, Temple of Hephaestus]]
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[[Image:British Musuem Greek & Rome 8.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The Greek temple of Xanthos displayed in the [[British Museum]].]]
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Greek temples, a staple of Western art and lore, actually share some notable architectural similarities with Egyptian temples, especially the use of multiple columns and the masonry used in construction. However, Classical and Hellenistic Greek temples are distinguished by their layouts: single rectangular rooms housing images, adorned with ornate columns, built with a porch at the entrance, and containing an altar for sacrifice. As the temples were often associated with specific festivals, they were oriented so their entrances would face the rising sun on the day of the festival. The style of their columns, one of the most characteristic features of these structures, depended upon the region where the temple built. Finally, the particular deity housed in the temple was chosen based upon the needs/interests of the worship community (for example, Athens contained numerous temples to Athena (its patron deity), while rural areas were more likely to have temples dedicated to Demeter or Dionysius).
  
Greek temples, a staple of Western art and lore, actually share some notable architectural similarities with the Egyptian temples discussed above. However, archaeological evidence of this cultural transmission is incomplete, and, even if it was unequivocally demonstrated, it is still undeniable that the Greeks innovated (to a considerable extent) upon the Egyptian design. Classical and Hellenistic Greek temples are distinguished by their layouts: single rectangular rooms housing images, adorned with ornate columns, built with a porch at the entrance, and containing an altar for sacrifice. As the temples were often associated with specific festivals, they were oriented such that their entrances would face the rising sun on the day of the festival. The style of their columns, one of the most characteristic features of these structures, depended upon the region where the temple built. Finally, the particular deity housed in the temple was chosen based upon the needs/interests of the worship community (for example, Athens contained numerous temples to Athena (its patron deity), while in rural areas it was more likely to find temples to Demeter or Dionysius).  
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Though similarities exist between the construction of Egyptian and Greek temples, they differ markedly in their respective functions. While Egyptian temple worship was exclusively performed by priests, Greek worship involved communal participation. Their temples were laid out with the sacrificial altar placed between the divine statue and the public area, which allowed both the spectators and the effigy of the deity to watch the sacrifices being performed.  
  
[[Image:British Musuem Greek & Rome 8.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The Greek temple of Xanthos displayed in the [[British Museum]].]]
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Just as Roman religion was largely derived from Greek religion, Roman temples adopted Hellenistic styles, though they maintained the high bases and single set of steps of their Etruscan neighbors. Unlike the Greek styles, the Romans would rarely surround their temples with columns, often only adorning the facade in this manner. The Roman style allowed for circular temples, like the Pantheon in Rome. Roman temples were important for religious festivals, but could serve as secular buildings when necessary.
  
Though similarities exist between the construction of Egyptian and Greek temples, they differ markedly in their respective functions. While Egyptian temple woship is exclusively performed by the priests, the Greek cults were affairs in which everyone could participate. Their temples were laid out with the sacrifical altar placed between the divine statue and the public area, which allowed  both the spectators and the effigy of the deity to watch the sacrifices being performed.
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===The Israelite Temples===
  
Just as Roman religion was largely derived from the Greek religion, Roman temples adopted the Hellenic style, though they maintained the high bases and single set of steps of their Etruscan neighbors. Unlike the the Greek style, the Romans would rarely surround their temples with columns, often only adorning the facade in this manner. The Roman style allowed for circular temples, like the Pantheon in Rome, which would have been impossible in the Greek style. The altar was placed at the foot of the steps, and thus was faced rather than surrounded. Roman temples were important for religious festivals, but could serve as secular buildings when necessary.
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Though temples throughout ancient Israel are recorded in the Hebrew Bible and found at archaeological sites, the most significant temples were the [[Temple of Jerusalem|First and Second Temples of Jerusalem]]. The former is dated 960 B.C.E.–950 B.C.E. to its destruction by the Babylonians in 587 B.C.E.–586 B.C.E., whereas the latter is dated 516 B.C.E.. to 70 C.E.  
  
===The Israelite Temple===
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The First Temple, built during the reign of [[King Solomon]], was an elliptical structure made of stone and cedar. It had a courtyard at its entrance, with an altar for burnt offerings. Inside, the temple was divided into two sections. The first, nearest the entrance, was the Great Hall. Within the hall was an incense altar. The more important room, entered after passing through the Great Hall, was the shrine, called the Holy of Holies. Within the shrine was placed the [[Ark of the Covenant]], the final resting place for the tablets of law given to [[Moses]] at [[Mount Sinai]]. This room was built upon an enormous rock, called the "foundation stone." The inside of the temple was planked with cedar and decorated with gold. The temple also had various storehouses, where the items used for worship were housed (1 Kings 6:2-38). Though the temple was originally constructed along biblical guidelines, various embellishments and renovations were made over the centuries, often in accord with political situations.
[[Image:TempleJerusalem.jpg|thumb|275px|A model of Herod's Temple adjacent to the Shrine of the Book exhibit at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.]]
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[[Image:TempleJerusalem.jpg|thumb|250px|A model of the Second Temple adjacent to the Shrine of the Book exhibit at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.]]
Though temples throughout ancient Israel are recorded in the Hebrew Bible and found in archaeological expeditions, the primary temples of [[Judaism]] are the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. The First Temple is often dated from between 960 - 950 B.C.E. to its destruction  by the Babylonians in 587-586 B.C.E. The Second Temple is dated from 516 B.C.E. to 70 C.E.
 
  
The First Temple, built during the reign of King Solomon, was an elliptical structure, made of stone and cedar. It had a courtyard at its entrance, with an altar for burnt offerings. Inside, the temple was divided into two sections. The first, nearest the entrance, was the Great Hall. Within the hall was an incense altar. The more important room, entered after passing through the Great Hall, was the shrine, called the Holy of Holies. Within the shrine was the [[Ark of the Covenant]], the final resting place for the tablets of law given to Moses at Mount Sinai. This room was built upon an enormous rock, called the "foundation stone". The inside of the temple was planked with cedar and decorated with gold. The temple also had various storehouses, where the items used for worship were housed (see 1 Kings 6:2-38 for the full biblical description). Though the temple was originally constructed along biblical guidelines, various embellishments and renovations were made over the centuries, often in accord with political situations.
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The Second Temple, built after the [[Babylonian Exile]], was erected upon the same site as the former temple and used a similar plan as the first, though it was more impressive in size. The shrine, however, no longer contained the [[Ark of the Covenant]] though it still was considered the dwelling place of the God of Israel. Like the first temple, the new temple would see a number of renovations, most importantly under the [[Hasmoneans]] and [[Herod]]. In the Second Temple period some of the rituals, like the enthronement hymns to Yahweh, bore similarities to ceremonies of the enthronement of Marduk in Babylon.<ref> Mowinckel, Sigmund, ''The Psalms in Israel's Worship.'' Vol. 1. (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1962), pp. 109. ISBN 0687347351</ref>
  
The Second Temple, built after the [[Babylonian Exile]], was built upon the same site and used a similar plan as the first, though it was more impressive in size. The shrine, though still considered the dwelling place of the God of Israel, no longer contained the Ark of the Covenant. Like the first temple, the new temple would see a number of renovations, most importantly under the [[Hasmoneans]] and [[Herod]].
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A fairly clear understanding of Israelite temple practice can be gleaned from the books of [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], and [[Numbers]]. Worship was focused on sacrifice, which was performed during the day, at dusk, and on important occasions such as [[festival|festivals]]. The book of Leveticus also contains highly specific procedural guidelines for [[atonement]] offerings, which provide an example of private ritual. Sacrifices took many forms: livestock, grains, produce, and currency. Livestock, such as cattle or sheep, were often sacrificed as burnt offerings. Those parts not burned (if any, dependent on the ritual) would be cooked and eaten by donors and priests. First fruits and harvests were common offerings. Also, wheat flour (turned to dough through mixing with oils) was also burned and eaten. Prayers and songs accompanied sacrifice.
  
A fairly clear understanding of Israelite temple practice can be gleaned from the books of [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], and [[Numbers]]. Worship was focused on sacrifice, which was performed during the day, at dusk, and on important occasions such as [[Sabbath|Sabbaths]] and [[festival|festivals]]. All of these were public rituals and were a part of every observant Israelites cultic practice. However, the book of Leveticus also contains highly specific procedural guidelines for [[atonement]] offerings, which provide an example of private ritual. Sacrifices took many forms: livestock, grains, produce, and currency. Livestock, such as cattle or sheep, could be burned in whole or in part to ash. Those parts not burned (if any, dependant on the ritual) would be cooked and eaten by donors and priests. First fruits and harvests were common offerings. As well, wheat flour (turned to dough through mixing with oils) was also burned and eaten. Prayers and songs accompanied sacrifice.
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Due to the centrality of the temple for all of these sacrificial and ritual purposes, its destruction promoted an intense crisis of faith for the early Jews. To answer this crisis, the [[Rabbi|Rabbis]], the scholarly class who founded modern Judaism, suggested that the temple be internalized by each believer—thus making every action and thought a sacrifice to the Almighty.
 
 
Due to the centrality of the temple for all of these sacrificial and ritual purposes, its destruction promoted an intense crisis of faith for the early Jews. To answer this crisis, the [[rabbi|rabbis]], the scholarly class who founded modern Judaism, suggested that the temple be internalized by each believer - thus making every action and thought a sacrifice to the Almighty.
 
  
 
==Temples in India==
 
==Temples in India==
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[[Image:Madurai-tank.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A Hindu temple is called a ''mandir'' in Hindi, a ''koyil'' in Tamil and a ''gudi'' in Telugu. Shown here is the famous [[Meenakshi Temple]] in [[Madurai]], [[India]].]]
 
[[Image:Madurai-tank.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A Hindu temple is called a ''mandir'' in Hindi, a ''koyil'' in Tamil and a ''gudi'' in Telugu. Shown here is the famous [[Meenakshi Temple]] in [[Madurai]], [[India]].]]
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Though they were predated by various Aryan and Dravidian worship structures, the first recognizably Hindu temples can be traced back to the fifth century C.E. The precursors to these were shrines set up around important objects, such as trees, [[lingas]], and other sacred items. These sites were often fairly open and were enclosed by railings or gates. When Hindu temples did begin to appear in India, they were easily differentiated due to their stone constructions and more substantial structures. However, the role they played was similar to the function of the earlier shrines: to house a focal point for worship and ritual.
  
Though they were predated by various Aryan and Dravidian worship structures, the first recognizably Hindu temples can be traced back to the fifth century c.e. The precursors to these were shrines set up around important objects, such as trees, [[lingas]] and other items. These sites were often fairly open and were enclosed by railings or gates. When Hindu temples did begin to appear in India, they were easily differentiated due to their stone constructions and more substantial structures. However, the role they played was similar to the function of the earlier shrines; that is, to house a focal point for worship and ritual.
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The central element of the Hindu temple is the image of the deity, and the fundamental function of the temple is to serve as a location for ritual worship ''(puja)'' and communion with the divine ''(darshan).'' Hindu temples are also venues for religious dance and music, which take place in assembly halls within the temple complex. Important forms of ''[[bhakti]]'' (religious devotion) that are practiced in Hindu temples involve approaching, prayer to, meditating upon, and circumambulating the divine image. Most often the major entrance to the temple is the eastern gate, facing the sunrise, though often there are gates on all sides. The approach from the entrance to the image along the major axis is meant to represent an ascent to the sanctuary and to convey a sense of mystery to the worshiper.
  
The central element of the Hindu temple is the image of the deity, and the fundamental function of the temple is to serve as a location for ritual. Hindu temples are also venues for religious dance and music, which takes place in assembly halls within the temple complex. Important forms of [[bhakti]] (religious devotion) that are practiced within the temple involve approaching, meditating upon and circumambulating the Divine image. Most often the major entrance to the temple is the Eastern gate, though often there are gates on all sides. The approach from the entrance to the image along the major axis is meant to represent an ascent to the sanctuary and to convey a sense of mystery to the worshipper.
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Though much variety exists in Hindu temple construction, there are certain common principles. An important text relating to the construction of temples (and other structures) is the ''Brhat Samhita,'' written in the sixth century C.E. by Varahamihira. Temple layout is inspired by creation mythology, recounting the story of the first sacrifice of ''Vastupurusha,'' who was dismembered by [[deva|devas]] to create the world. The plan is an eight square by eight square [[mandala]] (sixty-four squares total), the four central squares dedicated to [[Brahman]], while other sections of the plan are dedicated to [[Indra]], [[Agni]], and other members of the Hindu pantheon. In this way the Hindu temple is a monument to, and constant reminder of, [[creation myth|creation]]—a visual and spatial allusion to Vastupurusha. Also, the central place of Brahman, serving as the point from which the temple extends in the four cardinal directions, attests to Brahman's pivotal role in creation within the (largely [[monism|monistic]]) Hindu cosmology.
  
Though much variety exists in Hindu temple construction, there are certain common principles. An important text relating to the construction of temples (and other structures) is the ''Brhat Samhita'', written in the sixth century C.E. by Varahamihira. Temple layout is inspired by creation mythology, recounting the story of the first sacrifice of ''Vastupurusha'', who was dismembered by [[deva|devas]] to create the world. The plan is an eight square by eight square mandala (sixty-four squares total), the four central squares dedicated to [[Brahman]], while other sections of the plan are dedicated to [[Indra]], [[Agni]], and other members of the Hindu pantheon. In this way the Hindu temple is a monument to and constant reminder of [[creation myth|creation]], a visual and spatial allusion to Vastupurusha. As well, the central place of Brahman, serving as the point from which the temple extends in the four cardinal directions, attests to Brahman's pivotal role in creation and centrality within the (largely [[monism|monistic]]) Hindu cosmology.
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The sanctuary of the temple that houses the image of the deity is meant to represent a womb, which is simultaneously a symbol of divine power and potential. Hindu temple complexes in Northern India (such as Khojaharo, for example) often resemble mountains as symbols of strength and endurance.  
  
The sanctuary of the temple, which houses the image of the deity, is meant to represent a womb, which is simultaneously a symbol of divine power and potential.  Also important is the often massive, multi-storied roof of the temple, which represents a mountain (a symbol of strength and endurance). These symbolic allusions can be implicit or explicit, depending on the temple.
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Southern Indian temples (also known as ''Dravidian Temples'') had their own unique style contrasting with the north. Rather than appearing as a monolithic towering structures resembling mountains, Dravidian Temples utilized massive gateways (called Gopurams), covered with a multiplicity of divine imagery, as entry points leading to middle of the temple where the central shrine was kept in a modest and smaller building. Some of these southern temples are fortress-like in appearance, a fact that is also capitalized upon by the designers, for just as the temple is a reminder of creation, it is also a defense against the dangers of chaos.
 
 
The temple designs described above are most common in Northern India, as the Southern Indian temples grew to resemble the abodes of secular rulers over time. Some these southern temples are fortress-like in appearance, a fact that is also capitalized upon by the designers - for just as the temple is a reminder of creation, it is also a defence against the dangers of chaos.
 
  
 
===Buddhist Temples===
 
===Buddhist Temples===
  
Like the precursors to temples in the Hindu tradition, early sites of worship in Buddhism were not buildings but important sites enclosed by simple fences. After the death of [[Siddartha Gautama|the Buddha]], sites called ''[[stupas]]'' were built to house relics or mark special sites. Originally few in number and quite modest, stupa building became a passion for the religious king [[Asoka]], who re-distributed Buddhist relics as part of a large-scale proselytizing effort. In general, though, stupa construction was not only the domain of rulers and many stupas were built by the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]'' and devoted laity.
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Early sites of importance in Buddhism were not buildings, but physical places of significance in the early history of Buddhism (e.g. Bodhgaya, where the Buddha attained enlightenment, Lambini, where he was born, and Sarnath, where he gave his first sermon). After the death of [[Siddartha Gautama|the Buddha]], ''[[stupas]]'' (sacred mounds) were built to house relics or mark special locations. Originally few in number and quite modest, stupa building became a passion for the religious king [[Asoka]], who re-distributed Buddhist relics as part of a large-scale proselytizing effort. In general, though, stupa construction was not only the domain of rulers and many stupas were built by the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]'' and devoted laity.
  
Early Buddhists were not concerned with the worship of Buddha when participating in activities at the stupa complex, choosing instead to use the stupa as a lens to focus on important Buddhist teachings. Likewise, the stupa itself, due to its characteristic shape, symbolized the "cosmic egg," a principal idea in Buddhist creation mythology and cosmology. Over time it was recognized that the stupa, being of primary importance to religious adherents, needed to be protected from the elements, which eventually led to the construction of large shelters and temple complexes around these shrines. These complexes would also house wandering monks and pilgrims in simple cells that were built directly into the temples. As in other traditions, Buddhist temples grew in size and complexity over time, gradually becoming massive complexes (like the Indonesian shrine at Borobudur).
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Early Buddhists were not concerned with the worship of the Buddha during activities at the stupa complex, choosing instead to use the stupa as a lens to focus on important Buddhist teachings. Likewise, the stupa itself, due to its characteristic shape, symbolized the "cosmic egg," a principal idea in Buddhist [[creation mythology]] and [[cosmology]]. Over time it was recognized that the stupa, being of primary importance to religious adherents, needed to be protected from the elements, which eventually led to the construction of large shelters and temple complexes around these shrines. These complexes would also house wandering monks and pilgrims in simple cells that were built directly into the temples. As in other traditions, Buddhist temples grew in size and complexity over time, gradually becoming massive complexes (like the Indonesian Shrine at Borobudur).
  
As [[Mahayana]] Buddhism developed (with its acceptance of worship practices directed at the Buddha and the introduction of other salvific figures ([[Bodhisattva|Bodhisattvas]])), religious iconography became a more common element of Buddhist practice. These images would be housed within the temple complex, sometimes being placed within the stupa itself.
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As [[Mahayana]] Buddhism developed (with its acceptance of worship practices directed at the Buddha and the introduction of other salvific figures known as [[Bodhisattva|Bodhisattvas]]), religious iconography became a more common element of Buddhist practice. These images would be housed within the temple complex, sometimes being placed within the stupa itself.
  
 
==Temples in Asia==
 
==Temples in Asia==
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===Chinese Temples===
 
===Chinese Temples===
  
Temples in China share a great deal of common characteristics, whether they are Buddhist, Daoist (Taoist), Confucian, or associated with a folk tradition. In line with the Chinese approach to spirituality, the boundaries between different traditions need not be emphasized. This is clear when the parellels between temples with different religious affiliations are compared. For instance, the materials from which all temples are built is often timber, depending on availability; in the northern regions of China brick is employed alongside timber. Similarities are broader than simply construction materials, however: even secular buildings are composed of similar stuff, due to necessity. It can be said the Chinese temple style is somewhat universal amongst Chinese religions, though each tradition adds its own nuance to its particular buildings.
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Temples in [[China]] share a large number of common characteristics, whether they are [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Daoism|Daoist]], [[Confucianism|Confucian]], or associated with a folk tradition. Much like the overall Chinese approach to spirituality, the differences between the religious structures used by these religious traditions is often not emphasized. For example, the various temples cannot be distinguished based on the materials from which they are built, as virtually all Chinese temples are made of timber (in Southern China) or timber and brick (in Northern China). Indeed, even secular buildings are composed of similar materials. However, though it can be said that all the Chinese religions share a common temple style, each one does have its own particular nuances.
  
[[Image:Incense_burner.jpg|thumb|left|A standard incense burner found in most Chinese temples.]]
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[[Image:Incense_burner.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A standard incense burner found in most Chinese temples.]]
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Chinese temple complexes are often arranged in similar ways. Typically, large halls are separated and surrounded by pavilions, and the entire complex is then surrounded by a wall, with an especially elaborate gate at the entrance. The main entrances to all temples in China is situated at the south end of the complex in accordance with the principles of ''[[feng shui]].'' It is thought that evil spirits enter from the north, thus a southern entrance limits their access. However, for practical reasons, smaller gates are usually found on most or all sides of larger temple complexes. Since the main entrance is at the southernmost part of the temple complex, the main hall of the temple is often located at the northernmost part, thus orienting the entire construction on a north-south axis. Lesser halls are often situated on the west or east side of the major axis, with their entrances oriented towards the center axis.
  
Beyond construction materials similarities can be found in architectural style - temple complexes are often arranged in similar ways. The complex is made up of halls (rectangular structure with large entrances on the front and back) and pavillions (open air structures, consisting of benches beneath a roof supported by slender poles). The entire complex is surrounded by a wall, with an especially elaborate gate at the entrance. The main entrances to all temples in China is situated at the South end of the complex - this is in accordance with the principles of ''[[feng shui]]''. It is thought that evil spirits enter from the North, thus a Southern entrance limits their access. However, for practical reasons, smaller gates are usually found on most or all sides of a larger temple complex. Because the main entrance is at the southmost part of the temple complex, the main hall of the temple is often located at the northmost part. Thus major halls are often oriented on a North-South axis, just as the temple complex is. Other halls are often situated on the West or East side of the major axis, and often have their entrances oriented towards the center axis.
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[[Image:Temple of Heaven - Courtyard.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Temple of Heaven, a famous temple in Beijing]]
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The decoration of temples follows a near-universal scheme. The most prevalent color is red (which symbolizes prosperity and good fortune), with green and gold used as accents. Likewise, common iconographic themes are also shared, regardless of the temple's affiliation. Some of these include signs of the [[Chinese zodiac]], elaborate mythological creatures ([[Chinese dragon|dragon]]s, [[phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]]es, etc.) and characters written in calligraphic script. Though the central images differ based on the affiliation of the temple, the placement of these images within the various halls and pavilions is quite consistent, with various statues displayed in places of prominence. In the open courtyards, one often finds incense burners, which are used to make offerings to the deities represented in the halls.
  
[[Image:Temple of Heaven - Courtyard.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[The Temple of Heaven]], a famous temple in [[Beijing]]]]
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Temples in China are used primarily for offering ritual gifts and devotion to the various Chinese deities or Buddhist bodhisattvas. This practice often involves chanting, prostration, and the burning of incense. Temples may also be the site of religious festivities, involving rituals, music, and dancing. As well, temples may have living compounds to house monks and nuns that work at the temple. Historically, some temples (especially the Temple of Heaven in modern [[Beijing]]) had particular socio-political importance, as they were central to the imperial cult. For example, the Temple of Heaven was used by the emperor to perform sacrifices and to pray to [[Tian|Heaven]] for a productive harvest season.
 
 
Decoration of temples often follows the universal scheme. The most prevalent colors are red and green, usually with gold detail. Similar themes can be found, regardless of the temple's affiliation: signs of the Chinese zodiac are popular, alongwith elaborate dragons, phoenixes, and other mythological creatures. Though central images will be different, depedant on the variety of temple (for instance, one expects images of [[Buddha]] and [[bodhisattva|bodhisattvas]] at a Buddhist center), the location of the images in the halls is uniform. The layout and style of Chinese temples often share characteristics with buildings designated for the military or administrative purposes. In the open courtyards one will often find trees and incense burners, used to make offerings to the deities represented in the halls.
 
 
 
Temples in China are used primarily for the offering of gifts and devotion to the deities or bodhisattvas to which the temple (or particular hall within a temple) is dedicated. This is often a practice involving the burning of incense, chanting and prostration. Temples may also be the site of religious festivities, involving rituals, music and dance. As well, temples often have living compounds to house monks and nuns that live and work at the temple. Historically the emperor of China would use temples (most often the Temple of Heaven in modern [[Beijing]]) as a place to perform sacrifices and prayers to Heaven to secure a productive harvest season.
 
  
 
====Buddhist Temples====
 
====Buddhist Temples====
  
A great deal of Buddhist temple architecture in China was derived from Indian Buddhist temples, transmitted with Buddhist teachings via Central Asia in the third and fourth centuries C.E. The most identifiable influence of Indian Buddhist architecture is the ''pagoda'' - the Chinese interpretation of the ''stupa''. Like the stupa, the pagoda serves as a repository for important artefacts, most often [[scriptures]] and images, but occasionally relics. However, the pagoda became a focus for the Chinese Buddhist temple, being built on scales that greatly exceeded their Indian predecessors. During the Mongol [[Yuan]] dynasty temples built bore a resemblance to Tibetan Buddhist temples, due to the close links between Mongol leaders and the Tibetan Buddhist community.
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A great deal of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] temple architecture in China was derived from Indian Buddhist temples, the knowledge of which was transmitted with Buddhist teachings via Central Asia in the third and fourth centuries C.E. The most identifiable influence of Indian Buddhist architecture is the ''pagoda''—the Chinese interpretation of the ''[[stupa]].'' Like the stupa, the pagoda serves as a repository for important artifacts, most often [[scriptures]] and images, but occasionally relics. In Chinese Buddhism, the pagoda became a focal point of temple complexes and soon they were built on scales that greatly exceeded their Indian predecessors. During the Mongol [[Yuan]] dynasty, the temples that were built bore a resemblance to Tibetan Buddhist temples, due to the close links between Mongol leaders and the Tibetan Buddhist community.
  
 
====Daoist Temples====
 
====Daoist Temples====
  
In Daoism's philosophical beginnings there was little need for temples; the ideal of separation from society indicated temple construction to be counter-productive. However, the need for Daoist temples grew due to two developments that coincided during the early and middle part of the first millenium: the introduction of Buddhism on a large scale and the development of "religious" Daoism. This shift in the popular perception of Daoism suggested that this native Chinese religion needed to address the foreign tradition of Buddhism and had to do so in the context of the community. Thus the emergence of Daoist temples roughly coincides with the emergence of Buddhist temples in China. It is not surprising then that a great deal of Buddhist temple style is found in Daoist temples. Aside from different imagery (Daoist rather than Buddhist) the two are quite similar in appearance. Daoist temples can be found throughout China, but important complexes can be found in abundance at any of the five sacred peaks, most notably [[Tai Shan]].
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In the earlier (and more philosophical) era of [[Daoism]], there was little need for temples; the related ideals of non-materialism and of simplicity ''([[Wu-wei]])'' made the idea of temple construction counter-productive. However, the need for Daoist temples grew as a result of two related developments during the early and middle part of the first millennium: the introduction of [[Buddhism]] on a large scale, and the development of "religious" Daoism. This shift in the popular perception of Daoism suggested that this native Chinese religion was adapted to address the foreign tradition of Buddhism, within the context of the traditional community. As such, the emergence of Daoist temples (not coincidentally) coincides with the emergence of Buddhist temples in China. It is also not surprising that a great deal of Buddhist temple style is found in Daoist temples. Aside from differences in imagery, the two are quite similar in appearance.  
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Daoist temples can be found throughout China, but important complexes are located at the five sacred peaks, most notably [[Tai Shan]].
  
 
====Confucian Temples====
 
====Confucian Temples====
  
Confucian temples are the more unique of the three common temples found in China. Though Confucius was not popularly acknowledged in his own time (at least not on the scale that following generations would), the first Confucian temple was built around 478 B.C.E. in his hometown, modern Qufu. The general layout is similar to other temples, but the emphasis on images is significantly scaled back; the focus is on teachings rather than devotion. Evidence for this is found in the absence of major images (aside from the occasional statue of Confucius, a concession to the devotionally minded) and the abundance of lecture halls and, in larger complexes, stele with important works inscribed on them. Traditionally, the activities in a Confucian temple were related to classical learning, especially of music and ritual. Currently a major celebration held at Confucian temples is Confucius' birthday. In terms of numbers Confucian temples are surpassed by both Buddhist temples and Daoist temples in modern China.
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[[Confucianism|Confucian]] temples are the most distinctive of the three temples types found in China. Though Confucius was not largely acknowledged in his own time, the first Confucian temple was built around 478 B.C.E. in his hometown (modern Qufu). It is likely that it began as a family shrine for a well-loved patriarch, though it eventually came to play a role in the Imperial Cult.  
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The general layout of Confucian temples is similar to those described above, but the emphasis on images is significantly less. The focus is on teachings rather than devotion. Evidence for this is found in the absence of major images (aside from the occasional statue of Confucius, a concession to the devotionally minded) and the abundance of lecture halls and, in larger complexes, stele with important works inscribed on them. Traditionally, the activities in a Confucian temple were related to classical learning, especially of music and ritual.
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[[Image:Temple Kihryuzan Senjo-ji.jpg|thumb|250px|''Kihryuzan Senjo-ji Temple,'' by Toyota Kokai (1780–1850)]]
  
 
===Japanese and Korean Temples===
 
===Japanese and Korean Temples===
  
Just as Buddhist architectural styles were transmitted to China alongside Buddhist teaching, Korea and Japan inherited temple styles from China with the introduction of Buddhism to these regions. Like China, however, Korean and Japanese temple planners made changes, either of necessity or to suit local taste. Korean buildings were more likely to be built of stone than Chinese temples, similar to the temples found in the Northern regions of China. When Japanese forms of Buddhism entered more esoteric phases temples became less about prestige and grew more modest, and included sections for rituals performed by monks in private.  
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Just as Buddhist architectural styles were transmitted to China alongside Buddhist teaching, Korea and Japan inherited temple styles from China with the introduction of Buddhism to these regions. Like the Chinese, however, Korean and Japanese temple planners altered the basic design, either out of necessity or to suit local taste. Due to the ready availability of workable rock, Korean constructions were more frequently built of stone than their Chinese counterparts. Japanese temples, on the other hand, became less focused on prestige and grew more modest, including sections for rituals performed by monks in private. This was likely a result of the development of the highly iconoclastic [[Zen]] school.
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==Temples in the Americas==
 
==Temples in the Americas==
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===Mesoamerican Temples===
 
===Mesoamerican Temples===
  
Modern interpretations of the temples found throughout Mexico and Central America are based on what has been left standing and the records of early European explorers. As a result understanding of these structures is incomplete, though much information is available. The form of these temples, probably originating with the Olmecs and continued by a variety of groups, most popularly the Mayans, persisted for two and a half millenia. Important sites can still be visited in modern [[Mexico]] and [[Guatemala]], though they are no longer used for their original purposes.
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Modern interpretations of the temples found throughout Mexico and [[Central America]] are based on [[archaeology|archaeological]] remains and the records of early European explorers. As a result, understanding of these structures is still developing. The earliest [[Mesoamerican]] temples probably originated with the [[Olmecs]] and reached their pinnacle under the [[Mayans]]. Important sites can still be visited in modern [[Mexico]] and [[Guatemala]], though they are no longer used for their original purposes.
  
The standard style placed the temple atop a massive artificial pyramid. From the temple's main entrance a staircase lead to the foot of the pyramid, at which an open space was found, perhaps the site of a large altar. The pyramids were built from either compressed earth or mud brick, and could contain the bodies and paraphernalia of deceased rulers. The evolution of the actual temples can be traced archeologically, beginning with simple enclosures and progressing to complex masonry constructions. The temples contained ornate effigies of deities and were decorated with masks on the exterior. The scale of the pyramids were meant to convey a sense of prestige and power, often rising above surrounding florae and always towering over surrounding buildings.
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The standard Mesoamerican style placed the temple atop a massive artificial pyramid. From the temple's main entrance, a staircase led to the summit of the pyramid, at which an open space was found, which was often the site of a large altar. The pyramids were built from either compressed earth or mud brick, and could contain the bodies and paraphernalia of deceased rulers. The evolution of the actual temples can be traced archaeologically, beginning with simple enclosures and progressing to complex masonry constructions. The temples contained ornate effigies of deities and were decorated with masks on the exterior. The scale of the pyramids was meant to convey a sense of grandeur, prestige, and power, often rising above the surrounding jungle and towering over nearby buildings.
  
The role of the temple in the Mesoamerican world was to serve as a center of ritual for religious practice. The size of the sanctuary in the temple was likely too small to be of use for the average participant, and probably was used only by priests or leaders. Community worship was likely conducted at the base of the pyramid. Evidence suggests that temples were commissioned by rulers, and successive advances in scale and complexity were to be testaments to their reigns.
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The role of the temple in the Mesoamerican world was as a center for ritual religious practice and often sacrifices. The size of the sanctuary in the temple was too small for community gatherings, which has led archaeologists to theorize that it was used only by priests or religio-political leaders. As such, community worship was likely reduced to the base of the pyramid. Evidence suggests that temples were commissioned by rulers, and that successive advances in scale and complexity were to be testaments to their reigns.
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==Notes==
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<references />
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
*Levine, Baruch A. "Biblical Temple" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, pg. 202-208, edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353  
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*Lip, Evelyn. "Chinese Temples an Deities". Times Books International, 1981. ISBN 9971650533
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*Levine, Baruch A. "Biblical Temple." ''The Encyclopedia of Religion.'' MacMillan. 1987. pg. 202-208. ISBN 0028971353
*Mehta, Rustam J. "Masterpieces of Indian Temples". D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., 1974.
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*Lip, Evelyn. "Chinese Temples and Deities." Times Books International. 1981. ISBN 9971650533
*Meister, Michael W., et al. "Temple" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, pg. 368-389, edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353
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*Mehta, Rustam J. "Masterpieces of Indian Temples." D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. 1974.
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*Meister, Michael W., et al. "Temple." ''The Encyclopedia of Religion.'' MacMillan. 1987. pg. 368-389. ISBN 0028971353
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*Gwendolyn Leick. ''The Babylonians: An Introduction.'' New York: Routledge. 2003. ISBN 0415253152
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[[category:philosophy and religion]]
  
 
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Latest revision as of 01:43, 4 April 2008


Athens, Temple of Hephaestus

A Temple (from the Latin: templum "sacred place") is a house of worship used primarily for the purposes of religious devotion. Temples serve a variety of functions in the lives of a religious community: as places for ritual, worship, celebration, sacrifice, and communal activity. Most religions have temples of some sort, whether they are termed "mosque," "mandir," "church," or "gurdwara." Temples are an essential part of many religious traditions because they are believed to represent a physical location for connecting with the divine. In addition, ancient temples frequently functioned as a social center, like a City Hall with scribes and record keepers. Sometimes they were a place of refuge and care for widows, orphans, the handicapped, the sick, and refugees from war.[1] There was no separation of religion and state in the ancient world.

The various temples of the world exhibit a vast array of architectural and iconographic styles. However, they share the same common interest in creating a "sacred space" in which to commune with the divine. This theme is so central to human religiosity that virtually all religions (even those who do not use temples) make use of the metaphorical connotations of the term, as it provides a symbol that can be utilized both macrocosmically (viewing the entire universe as a temple of God) and microcosmically (viewing one's own body as a temple of divine energy, power, and love).

Historical Origins of Temples

In exploring the archaeological remains of various pre-literate cultures, it appears that the practice of worship in temples developed concurrently in various locations around the world. As a result of this contemporaneous development, which was deemed far too significant to be a mere coincidence, scholars of religion developed a hypothetical timeline to account for it.

They argue, based on archaeological evidence, that many early cultures were fascinated with the appearance of constellations and stars in the sky, which motivated them to conduct worship rituals under the firmament, at open-air altars. Over time, it is thought that these early religious adherents began to construct physical structures that emulated the sacred geometry seen in the constellations and other majestic natural phenomena. This allowed them to re-create (through architecture and symbol) the sense of sacredness that they experienced in nature. For example, temples in India and Southeast Asia were often designed in the form of sacred mandalas representing the cosmos, and, likewise, Egyptian and Meso-American temples were often oriented and aligned with the positions of various stars and planets. In a similar manner, the early Israelites felt it necessary to construct a massive temple (whose measurements were numerically tied to their cosmological views) as a fitting place to house the Ark of the Covenant. In all of the above cases, the temples were constructed to create a sacred space within which the religious adherents believed they could commune with the Divine. This understanding is congruent with many approaches taken in modern religious studies: it centers on the an understanding of sacred space (as per Mircea Eliade), of the Holy as a possible motivator of human action (as per Rudolf Otto), and of the human tendency to explore the world through metaphors and symbols (as per Susanne Langer, Michel Foucault, and other semioticians).

Despite the common function of temples as a representation of sacred space, it is also true that the temples of different religious traditions do have their own distinctive characteristics. To explore this more fully, a cross-section of temples from various cultures is presented below.

Temples of the Mediterranean and Near East

Egyptian Temples

Egyptian temple practice, characterized by monumental construction and involved rituals, flourished from the period of the Old Kingdom (third millennium B.C.E.) into the period of Roman rule. Their traditions were so well-established that even foreign occupiers (prior to the Christian period) did not impose their temple designs on Egypt.

Architecturally, Egyptian temples were laid out along an axis, beginning at a gate, flanked by towers, proceeding inward to the central shrine that housed an image of the deity to which the temple was dedicated. On either side of the central axis were rooms for storage of sacred items and administration of the temple. Progressing inward toward the shrine, the level of the floor was gradually graded upward. Also, the height of the ceiling steadily decreased, resulting in an ever shrinking passage, suggestive of a rising of the earth and the lowering of the heavens. The entire complex was surrounded by high walls.

Ritual was of seminal importance to Egyptian religion, and accordingly was central to the function of the temple. The main shrine that housed the image of the deity was considered a home for the deity, and rituals performed therein were done so for the benefit of the deity. As such, the main shrine was seen as being a highly sacred space, making it solely the domain of the priests and rendering it unavailable to the average devotee. These rituals, which included sacrifices and prayers, were performed daily. However, at various significant times during the year (especially the beginning of flood season), temple processions carried the divine images and special ceremonial boats from the interior of the temple to the exterior, involving the average person in worship.

Greek and Roman Temples

The Greek temple of Xanthos displayed in the British Museum.

Greek temples, a staple of Western art and lore, actually share some notable architectural similarities with Egyptian temples, especially the use of multiple columns and the masonry used in construction. However, Classical and Hellenistic Greek temples are distinguished by their layouts: single rectangular rooms housing images, adorned with ornate columns, built with a porch at the entrance, and containing an altar for sacrifice. As the temples were often associated with specific festivals, they were oriented so their entrances would face the rising sun on the day of the festival. The style of their columns, one of the most characteristic features of these structures, depended upon the region where the temple built. Finally, the particular deity housed in the temple was chosen based upon the needs/interests of the worship community (for example, Athens contained numerous temples to Athena (its patron deity), while rural areas were more likely to have temples dedicated to Demeter or Dionysius).

Though similarities exist between the construction of Egyptian and Greek temples, they differ markedly in their respective functions. While Egyptian temple worship was exclusively performed by priests, Greek worship involved communal participation. Their temples were laid out with the sacrificial altar placed between the divine statue and the public area, which allowed both the spectators and the effigy of the deity to watch the sacrifices being performed.

Just as Roman religion was largely derived from Greek religion, Roman temples adopted Hellenistic styles, though they maintained the high bases and single set of steps of their Etruscan neighbors. Unlike the Greek styles, the Romans would rarely surround their temples with columns, often only adorning the facade in this manner. The Roman style allowed for circular temples, like the Pantheon in Rome. Roman temples were important for religious festivals, but could serve as secular buildings when necessary.

The Israelite Temples

Though temples throughout ancient Israel are recorded in the Hebrew Bible and found at archaeological sites, the most significant temples were the First and Second Temples of Jerusalem. The former is dated 960 B.C.E.–950 B.C.E. to its destruction by the Babylonians in 587 B.C.E.–586 B.C.E., whereas the latter is dated 516 B.C.E. to 70 C.E.

The First Temple, built during the reign of King Solomon, was an elliptical structure made of stone and cedar. It had a courtyard at its entrance, with an altar for burnt offerings. Inside, the temple was divided into two sections. The first, nearest the entrance, was the Great Hall. Within the hall was an incense altar. The more important room, entered after passing through the Great Hall, was the shrine, called the Holy of Holies. Within the shrine was placed the Ark of the Covenant, the final resting place for the tablets of law given to Moses at Mount Sinai. This room was built upon an enormous rock, called the "foundation stone." The inside of the temple was planked with cedar and decorated with gold. The temple also had various storehouses, where the items used for worship were housed (1 Kings 6:2-38). Though the temple was originally constructed along biblical guidelines, various embellishments and renovations were made over the centuries, often in accord with political situations.

A model of the Second Temple adjacent to the Shrine of the Book exhibit at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

The Second Temple, built after the Babylonian Exile, was erected upon the same site as the former temple and used a similar plan as the first, though it was more impressive in size. The shrine, however, no longer contained the Ark of the Covenant though it still was considered the dwelling place of the God of Israel. Like the first temple, the new temple would see a number of renovations, most importantly under the Hasmoneans and Herod. In the Second Temple period some of the rituals, like the enthronement hymns to Yahweh, bore similarities to ceremonies of the enthronement of Marduk in Babylon.[2]

A fairly clear understanding of Israelite temple practice can be gleaned from the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Worship was focused on sacrifice, which was performed during the day, at dusk, and on important occasions such as festivals. The book of Leveticus also contains highly specific procedural guidelines for atonement offerings, which provide an example of private ritual. Sacrifices took many forms: livestock, grains, produce, and currency. Livestock, such as cattle or sheep, were often sacrificed as burnt offerings. Those parts not burned (if any, dependent on the ritual) would be cooked and eaten by donors and priests. First fruits and harvests were common offerings. Also, wheat flour (turned to dough through mixing with oils) was also burned and eaten. Prayers and songs accompanied sacrifice.

Due to the centrality of the temple for all of these sacrificial and ritual purposes, its destruction promoted an intense crisis of faith for the early Jews. To answer this crisis, the Rabbis, the scholarly class who founded modern Judaism, suggested that the temple be internalized by each believer—thus making every action and thought a sacrifice to the Almighty.

Temples in India

Hindu Temples

A Hindu temple is called a mandir in Hindi, a koyil in Tamil and a gudi in Telugu. Shown here is the famous Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, India.

Though they were predated by various Aryan and Dravidian worship structures, the first recognizably Hindu temples can be traced back to the fifth century C.E. The precursors to these were shrines set up around important objects, such as trees, lingas, and other sacred items. These sites were often fairly open and were enclosed by railings or gates. When Hindu temples did begin to appear in India, they were easily differentiated due to their stone constructions and more substantial structures. However, the role they played was similar to the function of the earlier shrines: to house a focal point for worship and ritual.

The central element of the Hindu temple is the image of the deity, and the fundamental function of the temple is to serve as a location for ritual worship (puja) and communion with the divine (darshan). Hindu temples are also venues for religious dance and music, which take place in assembly halls within the temple complex. Important forms of bhakti (religious devotion) that are practiced in Hindu temples involve approaching, prayer to, meditating upon, and circumambulating the divine image. Most often the major entrance to the temple is the eastern gate, facing the sunrise, though often there are gates on all sides. The approach from the entrance to the image along the major axis is meant to represent an ascent to the sanctuary and to convey a sense of mystery to the worshiper.

Though much variety exists in Hindu temple construction, there are certain common principles. An important text relating to the construction of temples (and other structures) is the Brhat Samhita, written in the sixth century C.E. by Varahamihira. Temple layout is inspired by creation mythology, recounting the story of the first sacrifice of Vastupurusha, who was dismembered by devas to create the world. The plan is an eight square by eight square mandala (sixty-four squares total), the four central squares dedicated to Brahman, while other sections of the plan are dedicated to Indra, Agni, and other members of the Hindu pantheon. In this way the Hindu temple is a monument to, and constant reminder of, creation—a visual and spatial allusion to Vastupurusha. Also, the central place of Brahman, serving as the point from which the temple extends in the four cardinal directions, attests to Brahman's pivotal role in creation within the (largely monistic) Hindu cosmology.

The sanctuary of the temple that houses the image of the deity is meant to represent a womb, which is simultaneously a symbol of divine power and potential. Hindu temple complexes in Northern India (such as Khojaharo, for example) often resemble mountains as symbols of strength and endurance.

Southern Indian temples (also known as Dravidian Temples) had their own unique style contrasting with the north. Rather than appearing as a monolithic towering structures resembling mountains, Dravidian Temples utilized massive gateways (called Gopurams), covered with a multiplicity of divine imagery, as entry points leading to middle of the temple where the central shrine was kept in a modest and smaller building. Some of these southern temples are fortress-like in appearance, a fact that is also capitalized upon by the designers, for just as the temple is a reminder of creation, it is also a defense against the dangers of chaos.

Buddhist Temples

Early sites of importance in Buddhism were not buildings, but physical places of significance in the early history of Buddhism (e.g. Bodhgaya, where the Buddha attained enlightenment, Lambini, where he was born, and Sarnath, where he gave his first sermon). After the death of the Buddha, stupas (sacred mounds) were built to house relics or mark special locations. Originally few in number and quite modest, stupa building became a passion for the religious king Asoka, who re-distributed Buddhist relics as part of a large-scale proselytizing effort. In general, though, stupa construction was not only the domain of rulers and many stupas were built by the Buddhist sangha and devoted laity.

Early Buddhists were not concerned with the worship of the Buddha during activities at the stupa complex, choosing instead to use the stupa as a lens to focus on important Buddhist teachings. Likewise, the stupa itself, due to its characteristic shape, symbolized the "cosmic egg," a principal idea in Buddhist creation mythology and cosmology. Over time it was recognized that the stupa, being of primary importance to religious adherents, needed to be protected from the elements, which eventually led to the construction of large shelters and temple complexes around these shrines. These complexes would also house wandering monks and pilgrims in simple cells that were built directly into the temples. As in other traditions, Buddhist temples grew in size and complexity over time, gradually becoming massive complexes (like the Indonesian Shrine at Borobudur).

As Mahayana Buddhism developed (with its acceptance of worship practices directed at the Buddha and the introduction of other salvific figures known as Bodhisattvas), religious iconography became a more common element of Buddhist practice. These images would be housed within the temple complex, sometimes being placed within the stupa itself.

Temples in Asia

Chinese Temples

Temples in China share a large number of common characteristics, whether they are Buddhist, Daoist, Confucian, or associated with a folk tradition. Much like the overall Chinese approach to spirituality, the differences between the religious structures used by these religious traditions is often not emphasized. For example, the various temples cannot be distinguished based on the materials from which they are built, as virtually all Chinese temples are made of timber (in Southern China) or timber and brick (in Northern China). Indeed, even secular buildings are composed of similar materials. However, though it can be said that all the Chinese religions share a common temple style, each one does have its own particular nuances.

A standard incense burner found in most Chinese temples.

Chinese temple complexes are often arranged in similar ways. Typically, large halls are separated and surrounded by pavilions, and the entire complex is then surrounded by a wall, with an especially elaborate gate at the entrance. The main entrances to all temples in China is situated at the south end of the complex in accordance with the principles of feng shui. It is thought that evil spirits enter from the north, thus a southern entrance limits their access. However, for practical reasons, smaller gates are usually found on most or all sides of larger temple complexes. Since the main entrance is at the southernmost part of the temple complex, the main hall of the temple is often located at the northernmost part, thus orienting the entire construction on a north-south axis. Lesser halls are often situated on the west or east side of the major axis, with their entrances oriented towards the center axis.

The Temple of Heaven, a famous temple in Beijing

The decoration of temples follows a near-universal scheme. The most prevalent color is red (which symbolizes prosperity and good fortune), with green and gold used as accents. Likewise, common iconographic themes are also shared, regardless of the temple's affiliation. Some of these include signs of the Chinese zodiac, elaborate mythological creatures (dragons, phoenixes, etc.) and characters written in calligraphic script. Though the central images differ based on the affiliation of the temple, the placement of these images within the various halls and pavilions is quite consistent, with various statues displayed in places of prominence. In the open courtyards, one often finds incense burners, which are used to make offerings to the deities represented in the halls.

Temples in China are used primarily for offering ritual gifts and devotion to the various Chinese deities or Buddhist bodhisattvas. This practice often involves chanting, prostration, and the burning of incense. Temples may also be the site of religious festivities, involving rituals, music, and dancing. As well, temples may have living compounds to house monks and nuns that work at the temple. Historically, some temples (especially the Temple of Heaven in modern Beijing) had particular socio-political importance, as they were central to the imperial cult. For example, the Temple of Heaven was used by the emperor to perform sacrifices and to pray to Heaven for a productive harvest season.

Buddhist Temples

A great deal of Buddhist temple architecture in China was derived from Indian Buddhist temples, the knowledge of which was transmitted with Buddhist teachings via Central Asia in the third and fourth centuries C.E. The most identifiable influence of Indian Buddhist architecture is the pagoda—the Chinese interpretation of the stupa. Like the stupa, the pagoda serves as a repository for important artifacts, most often scriptures and images, but occasionally relics. In Chinese Buddhism, the pagoda became a focal point of temple complexes and soon they were built on scales that greatly exceeded their Indian predecessors. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty, the temples that were built bore a resemblance to Tibetan Buddhist temples, due to the close links between Mongol leaders and the Tibetan Buddhist community.

Daoist Temples

In the earlier (and more philosophical) era of Daoism, there was little need for temples; the related ideals of non-materialism and of simplicity (Wu-wei) made the idea of temple construction counter-productive. However, the need for Daoist temples grew as a result of two related developments during the early and middle part of the first millennium: the introduction of Buddhism on a large scale, and the development of "religious" Daoism. This shift in the popular perception of Daoism suggested that this native Chinese religion was adapted to address the foreign tradition of Buddhism, within the context of the traditional community. As such, the emergence of Daoist temples (not coincidentally) coincides with the emergence of Buddhist temples in China. It is also not surprising that a great deal of Buddhist temple style is found in Daoist temples. Aside from differences in imagery, the two are quite similar in appearance.

Daoist temples can be found throughout China, but important complexes are located at the five sacred peaks, most notably Tai Shan.

Confucian Temples

Confucian temples are the most distinctive of the three temples types found in China. Though Confucius was not largely acknowledged in his own time, the first Confucian temple was built around 478 B.C.E. in his hometown (modern Qufu). It is likely that it began as a family shrine for a well-loved patriarch, though it eventually came to play a role in the Imperial Cult.

The general layout of Confucian temples is similar to those described above, but the emphasis on images is significantly less. The focus is on teachings rather than devotion. Evidence for this is found in the absence of major images (aside from the occasional statue of Confucius, a concession to the devotionally minded) and the abundance of lecture halls and, in larger complexes, stele with important works inscribed on them. Traditionally, the activities in a Confucian temple were related to classical learning, especially of music and ritual.

Kihryuzan Senjo-ji Temple, by Toyota Kokai (1780–1850)

Japanese and Korean Temples

Just as Buddhist architectural styles were transmitted to China alongside Buddhist teaching, Korea and Japan inherited temple styles from China with the introduction of Buddhism to these regions. Like the Chinese, however, Korean and Japanese temple planners altered the basic design, either out of necessity or to suit local taste. Due to the ready availability of workable rock, Korean constructions were more frequently built of stone than their Chinese counterparts. Japanese temples, on the other hand, became less focused on prestige and grew more modest, including sections for rituals performed by monks in private. This was likely a result of the development of the highly iconoclastic Zen school.


Temples in the Americas

Mesoamerican Temples

Modern interpretations of the temples found throughout Mexico and Central America are based on archaeological remains and the records of early European explorers. As a result, understanding of these structures is still developing. The earliest Mesoamerican temples probably originated with the Olmecs and reached their pinnacle under the Mayans. Important sites can still be visited in modern Mexico and Guatemala, though they are no longer used for their original purposes.

The standard Mesoamerican style placed the temple atop a massive artificial pyramid. From the temple's main entrance, a staircase led to the summit of the pyramid, at which an open space was found, which was often the site of a large altar. The pyramids were built from either compressed earth or mud brick, and could contain the bodies and paraphernalia of deceased rulers. The evolution of the actual temples can be traced archaeologically, beginning with simple enclosures and progressing to complex masonry constructions. The temples contained ornate effigies of deities and were decorated with masks on the exterior. The scale of the pyramids was meant to convey a sense of grandeur, prestige, and power, often rising above the surrounding jungle and towering over nearby buildings.

The role of the temple in the Mesoamerican world was as a center for ritual religious practice and often sacrifices. The size of the sanctuary in the temple was too small for community gatherings, which has led archaeologists to theorize that it was used only by priests or religio-political leaders. As such, community worship was likely reduced to the base of the pyramid. Evidence suggests that temples were commissioned by rulers, and that successive advances in scale and complexity were to be testaments to their reigns.

Notes

  1. Leick, Gwendolyn, The Babylonians: An Introduction. (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 77-78, 109-128. ISBN 0415253152
  2. Mowinckel, Sigmund, The Psalms in Israel's Worship. Vol. 1. (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1962), pp. 109. ISBN 0687347351

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Levine, Baruch A. "Biblical Temple." The Encyclopedia of Religion. MacMillan. 1987. pg. 202-208. ISBN 0028971353
  • Lip, Evelyn. "Chinese Temples and Deities." Times Books International. 1981. ISBN 9971650533
  • Mehta, Rustam J. "Masterpieces of Indian Temples." D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. 1974.
  • Meister, Michael W., et al. "Temple." The Encyclopedia of Religion. MacMillan. 1987. pg. 368-389. ISBN 0028971353
  • Gwendolyn Leick. The Babylonians: An Introduction. New York: Routledge. 2003. ISBN 0415253152

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