Difference between revisions of "Silver" - New World Encyclopedia

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:''This page is about silver the [[chemical element]]. For the [[color]], see [[silver (color)]].''
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{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}
 
{{Elementbox_header | number=47 | symbol=Ag | name=silver | left=[[palladium]] | right=[[cadmium]] | above=[[copper|Cu]] | below=[[gold|Au]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_header | number=47 | symbol=Ag | name=silver | left=[[palladium]] | right=[[cadmium]] | above=[[copper|Cu]] | below=[[gold|Au]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
 
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
 
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=11 | period=5 | block=d }}
 
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=11 | period=5 | block=d }}
 
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ag,47| lustrous white metal }}
 
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ag,47| lustrous white metal }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|107.8682(2)]] }}
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{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|107.8682]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
 
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[krypton|Kr]]&#93; 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>1</sup> }}
 
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[krypton|Kr]]&#93; 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>1</sup> }}
 
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 }}
 
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 }}
 
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 +
{{Elementbox_color | silver }}
 
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
 
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
 
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 10.49 }}
 
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 10.49 }}
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{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1283 | 1413 | 1575 | 1782 | 2055 | 2433 | comment= }}
 
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1283 | 1413 | 1575 | 1782 | 2055 | 2433 | comment= }}
 
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }}
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{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | face-centered cubic }}
 
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 1<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
 
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 1<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
 
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.93 }}
 
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.93 }}
 
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 731.0 | 2070 | 3361 }}
 
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 731.0 | 2070 | 3361 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|160]] }}
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{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | 160 }}
 
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|165]] }}
 
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|165]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|153]] }}
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{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | 153 }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|172]] }}
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{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | 172 }}
 
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[diamagnetism|diamagnetic]] }}
 
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[diamagnetism|diamagnetic]] }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=silver | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=silver | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=105 | sym=Ag
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=105 | sym=Ag
  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|41.2 d]]
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  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=41.2 d
  | dm1=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de1=- | pn1=105 | ps1=[[palladium|Pd]]
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  | dm1=[[electron capture|ε]] | de1=- | pn1=105 | ps1=[[palladium|Pd]]
  | dm2=[[gamma ray|&gamma;]] | de2=0.344, 0.280,<br /> 0.644, 0.443 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
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  | dm2=[[gamma ray|γ]] | de2=0.344, 0.280,<br /> 0.644, 0.443 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=106[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Ag
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=106[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Ag
  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s| 8.28 d]]
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  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=8.28 d
  | dm1=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de1=- | pn1=106 | ps1=[[palladium|Pd]]
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  | dm1=[[electron capture|ε]] | de1=- | pn1=106 | ps1=[[palladium|Pd]]
  | dm2=[[gamma ray|&gamma;]] | de2=0.511, 0.717,<br /> 1.045, 0.450 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
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  | dm2=[[gamma ray|γ]] | de2=0.511, 0.717,<br /> 1.045, 0.450 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=107 | sym=Ag | na=51.839% | n=60 }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=107 | sym=Ag | na=51.839% | n=60 }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=108[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Ag
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=108[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Ag
  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|418 y]]
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  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=418 y
  | dm1=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de1=- | pn1=108 | ps1=[[palladium|Pd]]
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  | dm1=[[electron capture|ε]] | de1=- | pn1=108 | ps1=[[palladium|Pd]]
 
  | dm2=[[isomeric transition|IT]] | de2=0.109 | pn2=108 | ps2=Ag  
 
  | dm2=[[isomeric transition|IT]] | de2=0.109 | pn2=108 | ps2=Ag  
  | dm3=[[gamma ray|&gamma;]] | de3=0.433, 0.614,<br /> 0.722 | pn3= | ps3=-}}
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  | dm3=[[gamma ray|γ]] | de3=0.433, 0.614,<br /> 0.722 | pn3= | ps3=-}}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=109 | sym=Ag | na=48.161% | n=62 }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=109 | sym=Ag | na=48.161% | n=62 }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=111 | sym=Ag
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=111 | sym=Ag
  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s| 7.45 d]]
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  | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=7.45 d
  | dm1=[[beta decay|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=1.036, 0.694 | pn1=111 | ps1=[[cadmium|Cd]]
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  | dm1=[[beta decay|β<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=1.036, 0.694 | pn1=111 | ps1=[[cadmium|Cd]]
  | dm2=[[gamma ray|&gamma;]] | de2=0.342 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
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  | dm2=[[gamma ray|γ]] | de2=0.342 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
 
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
 
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
 
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
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'''Silver''' (chemical symbol '''Ag''', [[atomic number]] 47) is a soft metal with a brilliant white luster that can take a high degree of [[polishing|polish]]. Along with [[copper]] and [[gold]], it is one of the coinage metals. It is also considered a [[noble metal]]&mdash;a metal that resists corrosion. Of all metals, silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity. In nature, silver has been found in the free form as well as in the form of some compounds, and it has been extracted and used since antiquity.
  
'''Silver''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ag''' (from the traditional abbreviation for the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] ''Argentum'') and [[atomic number]] 47. A soft white lustrous [[transition metal]], silver has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal and occurs in [[mineral]]s and in free form. This metal is used in [[coin]]s, [[jewelry]], [[tableware]], and [[photography]].
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Culturally, silver has been associated with the [[Moon]] and feminine nature, while [[gold]] has been associated with the [[Sun]] and masculine nature. In addition, given its attractive white coloration, silver has been taken to symbolize purity.
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{{toc}}
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Silver is considered a precious metal often sold as an investment commodity. This metal and its alloys are used in making [[coin]]s, [[jewelry]], [[tableware]], [[mirror]]s, [[printed circuit board]]s, and [[electronics|electronic products]]. The [[nitrate]] and [[halide]]s of silver are valuable in [[photography]]. In addition, silver chloride is used as a [[cement]] for [[glass]] objects and in making [[electrode]]s to test the acidity of [[solution]]s; silver oxide is an electrode for watch batteries; and [[silver fulminate]] is an [[explosive]]. Elemental silver is nontoxic, but most silver salts are toxic when ingested at relatively high concentrations. At low concentrations, some silver compounds have been used successfully to prevent infections.
  
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Silver.ogg|2005-09-01}}
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== Occurrence and extraction ==
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[[Image:SilverOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Silver ore (penny shown for scale)]]
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Silver is found in native form and in various ores such as [[argentite]] (silver sulfide, Ag<sub>2</sub>S) and horn silver (silver chloride, AgCl). It may also be found combined with [[arsenic]] or [[antimony]]. The principal sources of silver are [[copper]], copper-[[nickel]], [[gold]], [[lead]], and lead-[[zinc]] ores obtained from [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[Australia]], and the [[United States]].
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[[Mexico]] is the world's largest silver producer. According to the secretary of economics of Mexico, it produced 80,120,000 [[troy weight|troy]] ounces (2,492 metric tons) in 2000, about 15 percent of the annual worldwide production.
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Silver is produced during the [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] refining of [[copper]]. Commercial grade fine silver is at least 99.9 percent pure silver, and purities higher than 99.999 percent are available.
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== Etymology and history ==
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[[Image:SilverUSGOV.jpg|left|thumb|A silver nugget]]
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The name silver is derived from the [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''seolfor'' (compare with Old High German ''silabar''). Its chemical symbol, Ag, is an abbreviation of the [[Latin]] word ''argentum''.
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Silver has been known since ancient times. Slag heaps found in [[Asia Minor]] and on the islands of the [[Aegean Sea]] indicate that it was being separated from [[lead]] as early as the fourth millennium B.C.E. Historically, it has been used for making [[ornament]]s and [[utensil]]s. In addition, it has been used for [[trade]] and as the basis for many [[monetary system]]s. Its value as a [[precious metal]] was long considered second only to [[gold]]. In [[ancient Egypt]] and [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Europe, it was often more valuable than gold.
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In the [[Bible]], silver is mentioned as early as the [[Genesis|Book of Genesis]]. In the [[New Testament]], [[Judas Iscariot]] is recorded as having taken a bribe of 30 pieces of silver from religious leaders in [[Jerusalem]] to turn [[Jesus of Nazareth|Jesus Christ]] over to the [[Roman Empire|Romans]].
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[[image:silver-symbol.png|left|75px|Alchemical symbol for silver]]
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Associated with the [[Moon]], the [[sea]], and various lunar [[goddess]]es, the metal was referred to by alchemists by the name ''luna''. One of the [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbols for silver is a [[crescent]] moon with the concave part on the left (see diagram on the left).
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The metal [[mercury (element)|mercury]] was once thought of as a kind of silver, though the two elements are chemically unrelated. The Latin name for mercury was ''hydrargyrum'', meaning "watery silver," and the [[English language|English]] name was ''quicksilver''.
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Europeans found huge quantities of silver in the [[New World]], such as in Zacatecas, [[Mexico]] and Potosí, [[Bolivia]]. The conquistador [[Francisco Pizarro]] was said to have resorted to having his [[horse]]s shod with silver horseshoes because the metal was relatively abundant. By contrast, there was a relative lack of [[iron]] in [[Peru]]. Aside from that, silver was extremely valuable elsewhere, making it a global commodity and triggering a period of inflation in Europe. These developments contributed to the rise of the [[Spain|Spanish]] Empire. The rise and fall of the value of silver affected the world market.
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The [[Rio de la Plata]] was named after silver, after the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''plata''. In addition, [[Argentina]] got its name from the Latin word for silver.
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Silver [[mining]] was a driving force in the settlement of western North America, with major booms for silver and its associated [[mineral]]s, particularly lead in the [[galena]] [[ore]] that silver is most commonly found in. Notable "silver rushes" took place in [[Colorado]], [[Nevada]], [[California]], [[Ontario]], and the Kootenay region of [[British Columbia]]. The largest silver ore deposits in the United States were discovered at the Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nevada, in 1859.
  
 
== Notable characteristics ==
 
== Notable characteristics ==
[[Image:SilverUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|A chunk of silver]]
 
Silver is a very ductile and malleable (slightly harder than [[gold]]) univalent [[coinage metal]] with a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high degree of [[polishing|polish]]. It has the highest [[electrical conductivity]] of all metals, even higher than [[copper]], but its greater cost has prevented it from being widely used in place of copper for electrical purposes.
 
  
Pure silver also has the highest [[thermal conductivity]], whitest color, the highest optical [[reflectivity]] (although it is a poor reflector of [[ultraviolet]]), and the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver halides are photosensitive and are remarkable for the effect of light upon them. This metal is stable in pure air and water, but does tarnish when it is exposed to [[ozone]], [[hydrogen sulfide]], or air with [[sulfur]] in it.  The most common [[oxidation state]] of silver is +1; a few +2 compounds are known as well.
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In the [[periodic table]], silver is a member of the group of [[transition metal]]s in period 5, situated between [[palladium]] and [[cadmium]]. In addition, it lies in group 11 (former group 1B), between [[copper]] and [[gold]].
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Silver is a very ductile and malleable and is slightly harder than [[gold]]. It is stable in pure air and water, but it tarnishes when exposed to [[ozone]], [[hydrogen sulfide]], or air containing [[sulfur]].
  
== Applications ==
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It has the highest [[electrical conductivity]] of all metals, even higher than that of [[copper]]. Yet, its higher cost and tarnishability have prevented it from replacing copper for electrical purposes. Pure silver also has the highest [[thermal conductivity]], whitest color, highest optical [[reflectivity]] (except for being a poor reflector of [[ultraviolet]] light), and the lowest contact resistance of any metal.
The principal use of silver is as a [[precious metal]] and its [[halogen|halide]] salts, especially [[silver nitrate]], are also widely used in photography (which is the largest single end use of silver).
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Some other uses for silver are as follows:
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In combining with other elements, its most common [[oxidation state]] is +1, such as in [[silver nitrate]] (AgNO<sub>3</sub>) and silver chloride (AgCl). In some compounds, such as [[silver(II) fluoride]] (AgF<sub>2</sub>), its oxidation number is +2. It also forms a few compounds, such as [[silver(III) persulfate]] (Ag<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>5</sub>)<sub>3</sub>), in which its oxidation state is +3. Silver chloride and other silver halides are photosensitive and remarkable for the effect of light upon them.
*Electrical and electronic products, which need silver's superior conductivity, even when tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using silver paints, and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Silver is also used in high voltage contacts because it is the only metal that will not arc across contacts, hence it is extremely safe.
 
*[[Mirror]]s which need silver's superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the reflecting material in a process called [[silvering]]. Common mirrors are backed with aluminium.
 
[[Image:American Silver Eagle, reverse.jpg|thumb|right|143px|The reverse side of the [[American Silver Eagle]] bullion coin.]]
 
*Silver has been coined to produce money since [[700 B.C.E.]] by the [[Lydia]]ns, in the form of [[electrum]]. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. The words for "silver" and "money" are the same in at least 14 languages.
 
*The metal is chosen for its beauty in the manufacture of jewelry and silverware, which are traditionally made from the silver alloy known as [[Sterling silver]], which is 92.5% silver.
 
*The malleability, non-toxicity and beauty of silver make it useful in dental alloys for fittings and fillings.
 
*Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a [[catalyst]] in oxidation reactions; for example, the production of [[formaldehyde]] from [[methanol]] and air by means of silver screens or [[crystallite]]s containing a minimum 99.95 [[weight]]-percent silver.
 
*Used to make [[solder]] and brazing alloys, [[electrical contact]]s, and high capacity silver-[[zinc]] and silver-[[cadmium]] [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]].
 
*[[Silver sulfide]], also known as [[Silver Whiskers]], is formed when silver [[electrical contact]]s are used in an atmosphere rich in [[hydrogen sulfide]].
 
*[[Silver fulminate]] is a powerful [[explosive]].
 
*[[Silver chloride]] can be made transparent and is used as a [[cement]] for glass.
 
*[[Silver chloride]] is also a widely used electrode for [[pH testing]] and [[potentiometric]] measurement
 
*[[Silver iodide]] has been used in attempts to seed [[cloud]]s to produce rain.
 
* In [[legend]], silver is traditionally seen as harmful to [[supernatural]] creatures like [[werewolves]] and [[vampire]]s.  The use of silver fashioned into [[bullet]]s for [[firearm]]s is a popular application.
 
* [[Silver oxide]] is used as a positive electrode ([[cathode]]) in watch batteries.
 
* [[Colloidal silver]] is an effective antibacterial / antibiotic.  It is applied to some bandage materials.
 
  
== History ==
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[[Oxygen]] dissolves in silver relatively easily, compared to other gases present in air. Attempts have been made to construct silver [[membrane]]s that are only a few [[monolayer]]s in thickness. Such a membrane could be used to filter pure oxygen from air.
Silver (from [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''seolfor'', compare [[Old High German]] ''silabar''; Ag is from the Latin ''argentum'')  has been known since ancient times.  It is mentioned in the [[book of Genesis]], and slag heaps found in [[Asia Minor]] and on the islands of the [[Aegean Sea]] indicate that silver was being separated from [[lead]] as early as the [[4th millennium B.C.E.]].
 
  
Silver has been used for thousands of years for [[ornament]]s and [[utensil]]s, for [[trade]], and as the basis for many [[monetary system]]s. Its value as a [[precious metal]] was long considered second only to [[gold]]. In [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]], it was often more valuable than gold.
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=== Isotopes ===
  
Associated with the [[moon]], as well as with the sea and various lunar [[goddess]]es, the metal was referred to by alchemists by the name ''luna''.  [[image:silver-symbol.png|right|75px|Alchemical symbol for silver]]One of the [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbols for silver is a [[crescent]] [[moon]] with the open part on the left (see picture, right).
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[[Isotope]]s of silver range in [[atomic weight]] from 93.943 atomic mass units (amu) (<sup>94</sup>Ag) to 123.929 amu (<sup>124</sup>Ag). Naturally occurring silver is composed of the two stable [[isotope]]s, <sup>107</sup>Ag and <sup>109</sup>Ag, with <sup>107</sup>Ag being the more abundant (51.839 percent [[natural abundance]]). In addition, 28 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, of which <sup>105</sup>Ag (the most stable) has a [[half-life]] of 41.29 days, <sup>111</sup>Ag has a half-life of 7.45 days, and <sup>112</sup>Ag has a half-life of 3.13 hours.
  
The metal [[mercury (element)|mercury]] was thought of as a kind of silver, though the two elements are chemically unrelated; its Latin and [[English language|English]] names, ''hydrargyrum'' ("watery silver") and ''quicksilver,'' respectively, reflect this history.
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All the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than three minutes. Silver also has numerous [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being <sup>128m</sup>Ag (''t''<sub>*</sub> 418 years), <sup>110m</sup>Ag (''t''<sub>*</sub> 249.79 days), and <sup>107m</sup>Ag (''t''<sub>*</sub> 8.28 days).
  
In [[heraldry]], the [[tincture (heraldry)|argent]], in addition to being shown as silver (this has been shown at times with real silver in official representations), can also been shown as white.  Occasionally, the word "silver" is used rather than argent; sometimes this is done across-the-board, sometimes to avoid repetition of the word "argent" in blazon.
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The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, <sup>107</sup>Ag, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before <sup>107</sup>Ag are [[palladium]] (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after are [[cadmium]] (element 48) isotopes.
  
Europeans found a huge amount of silver in the [[New World]] in [[Zacatecas, Zacatecas|Zacatecas]] and [[Potosí]], which triggered a period of inflation in Europe. The conquistador [[Pizarro]] was said to have resorted to having his horses shod with silver horseshoes due to the metal's abundance, in contrast to the relative lack of iron in [[Peru]].
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== Applications ==
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[[Image:Johnson Matthey 500 grammes silver bullion.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Silver bullion bar]]
  
The [[Rio de la Plata]] was named after silver (in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''plata''), and in turn lent the meaning of its name to [[Argentina]].
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The principal use of silver is as a [[precious metal]]. The price of silver, however, has gone through dramatic fluctuations. Its salts, especially [[silver nitrate]] and silver [[halogen|halides]], are also widely used in [[photography]], the largest single end use of silver. Some other uses of silver and its compounds are given below.
  
== Occurrence ==
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* Some electrical and electronic products need silver's superior conductivity, even when tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using silver paints, and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Silver (silver cadmium oxide) is also used in high voltage contacts because it can minimize [[electric arcing]].
[[Image:SilverOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Silver ore]]
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* [[Mirror]]s that need superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the reflecting material in a process called ''silvering''. Common mirrors, however, are backed with [[aluminum]].
Silver is found in native form, combined with [[sulfur]], [[arsenic]], [[antimony]], or [[chlorine]] and in various ores such as [[argentite]] (Ag<sub>2</sub>[[sulfur|S]]) and [[horn silver]] (Ag[[chlorine|Cl]]).
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* Silver has been coined to produce money since at least 700 B.C.E. by the [[Lydia]]ns, in the form known as [[electrum]]. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. The words for "silver" and "money" are the same in at least 14 languages.
The principal sources of silver are [[copper]], copper-[[nickel]], [[gold]], [[lead]] and lead-[[zinc]] ores obtained from [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[Australia]] and the [[United States]].
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* The metal is chosen for its beauty in the manufacture of jewelry and silverware. They are traditionally made from the silver alloy known as [[sterling silver]], which is 92.5 percent silver, usually alloyed with copper. The British monetary unit 'pound' originally had the value of one troy pound of sterling silver.
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* Silver is also used in medals&mdash;usually denoting second place, after gold.
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* The malleability, nontoxicity, and beauty of silver make it useful in dental alloys for fittings and fillings.
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* Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a [[catalyst]] in oxidation reactions. Examples include the production of [[formaldehyde]] from [[methanol]] and air by means of silver screens or [[crystallite]]s containing a minimum 99.95 [[weight]]-percent of silver. Also, silver (on a suitable support) is probably the only catalyst currently available to convert [[ethylene]] to [[ethylene oxide]]. The latter can be hydrolyzed to [[ethylene glycol]], which is used for making [[polyester]]s&mdash;a very important industrial reaction.
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* Silver is used to make [[solder]] and brazing [[alloy]]s, [[electrical contact]]s, and high-capacity silver-[[zinc]] and silver-[[cadmium]] [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]].
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* [[Silver fulminate]] is a powerful [[explosive]].
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* [[Silver chloride]] can be made transparent and is used as a [[cement]] for [[glass]].
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* [[Silver chloride]] is also a widely used electrode for testing [[pH]] (acidity or basicity) and potentiometric measurement.
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* [[Silver iodide]] has been used in attempts to seed [[cloud]]s to produce rain.
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* [[Silver oxide]] is used as a positive electrode ([[cathode]]) in watch batteries.
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* [[Colloidal silver]] is a possible antibacterial/antibiotic treatment espoused in alternative medicine. It is, however, notorious for causing [[argyria]], as noted below.
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* [[Silver nitrate]] (liquid) was a standard of care but was largely replaced by [[silver sulfadiazine]] cream (SSD Cream) for the antibacterial/antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s. Now, other options such as silver-coated dressings (activated silver dressings) are used in addition to SSD cream&mdash;they may present advantages such as pain reduction and capacity for treatment at home.
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* In [[India]], some foods and confectionery items may be decorated with a thin silver film known as ''Varak''.
  
This metal is also produced during the [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] refining of copper. Commercial grade fine silver is at least 99.9% pure silver and purities greater than 99.999% are available. [[Mexico]] is the largest silver producer. According to the Secretary of Economics of Mexico, it produced 80,120,000 [[troy weight|troy]] [[ounce]]s (2492 [[metric ton]]s) in 2000, about 15% of the annual production of the world.
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== Medical uses ==
  
Because the lion's share of the world's silver deposits happen to be concentrated in the Americas, silver was far more valuable before the Age of Discovery; on average, about one-sixth or one-seventh the cost of gold. Now, however, silver is relatively cheap compared to other precious metals, and a mass of silver is now worth only about 1/60 the same mass of gold. In turn, copper is about 1/70 as valuable as silver.
+
[[Hippocrates]], the father of modern medicine, wrote that silver had beneficial healing and anti-disease properties. The Phoenicians used to store [[water]], [[wine]], and [[vinegar]] in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early 1900s, people would put silver dollars in milk bottles, in the belief that it prolonged the milk's freshness. Before the advent of [[antibiotic]]s, silver compounds were used successfully to prevent infection, such as during [[World War I]].
  
== Isotopes ==
+
The widespread use of silver in medicine went out of fashion with the development of modern antibiotics. Recently, however, there has been renewed interest in silver as a broad spectrum antimicrobial. In particular, it is being used with alginate, a naturally occurring [[biopolymer]] derived from seaweed. A range of silver alginate products have been designed to prevent infections as part of wound management procedures, particularly for [[Burn (injury)|burn]] victims.
Naturally occurring silver is composed of the two stable [[isotope]]s Ag-107 and Ag-109 with Ag-107 being the most abundant (51.839% [[natural abundance]]). Twenty-eight [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being Ag-105 with a [[half-life]] of 41.29 days, Ag-111 with a half-life of 7.45 days, and Ag-112 with a half-life of 3.13 hours.
 
  
All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than an hour and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 3 minutes. This element also has numerous [[meta state]]s with the most stable being Ag-128m (''t''<sub>*</sub> 418 years), Ag-110m (''t''<sub>*</sub> 249.79 days) and Ag-107m (''t''<sub>*</sub> 8.28 days).
+
===Health precautions===
  
Isotopes of silver range in [[atomic weight]] from 93.943 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (Ag-94) to 123.929 u (Ag-124). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, Ag-107, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before Ag-107 are [[palladium]] (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after are [[cadmium]] (element 48) isotopes.
+
Silver plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of silver are a subject of dispute. Silver itself is not toxic, but most silver salts are, and some may be [[carcinogen|carcinogenic]].
  
The palladium [[isotope]] Pd-107 decays by beta emission to Ag-107 with a half-life of 6.5 million years. [[Iron]] [[meteorite]]s are the only objects with a high enough [[palladium|Pd]]/Ag ratio to yield measurable variations in Ag-107 abundance. [[Radiogenic]] Ag-107 was first discovered in the [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]] meteorite in [[1978]].
+
Silver (particularly [[colloidal silver]]) and its compounds can be absorbed into the [[circulatory system]] and become deposited in various body tissues, leading to a condition called [[argyria]]. This condition produces a blue-gray pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and [[mucous membrane]]s. Although this condition does not harm a person's health, it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare and mild forms are sometimes mistaken for [[cyanosis]].
The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small [[planet]]s may have occurred 10 million years after a [[nucleosynthetic]] event. Pd-107 versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since the [[accretion]] of the [[solar system]], must reflect the presence of live short-lived nuclides in the early solar system.
 
  
== Precautions and health effects ==
+
Silver ions and compounds have a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae, and fungi, similar to the toxicity of heavy metals like [[lead (element)|lead]] or [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. For humans, however, they do not have the high toxicity associated with lead and mercury.
Silver plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of silver are a subject of dispute. Silver itself is not toxic but most of its salts are and some may be carcinogenic.
 
  
[[Hippocrates]], the father of modern medicine, wrote that silver had beneficial healing and anti-disease properties, and the Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. The saying 'Born with a silver spoon in the mouth' does not relate to wealth, but to health, as children fed through silver utensils were discovered to be healthier than others (Source: Silver Institute). In the early 1900's people would put silver [[Dollar| Dollars]] in milk bottles to prolong it's freshness. Silver compounds were used sucessfully to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of antibiotics, and Silver compounds are still widely used externally today to accelerate healing in burn victims.
+
===Alternative medicine===
  
Silver and compounds containing silver (like [[colloidal silver]]) can be absorbed into the [[circulatory system]] and become deposited in various body tissues leading to a condition called [[argyria]] which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and [[mucous membrane]]s. Although this condition does not harm a person's health, it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare and mild forms are sometimes mistaken for [[cyanosis]].
+
Today, a variety of silver [[compound]]s, or devices to make solutions or colloids containing silver, are sold as remedies for a wide range of diseases. Although mostly harmless, some people using these home-made solutions use far too much and develop [[argyria]] over a period of months or years. Several cases have been documented in the last few years in the medical literature, including one possible case of coma associated with high intake of silver (see medical references). It is strongly advised to notify a doctor when taking silver as a form of self-medication.
  
Silver-ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi typical for heavy metals like [[lead]] or [[mercury]], but without the high toxicity to humans that is normally associated with them. It's germicidal effects kills many microbial organisms ''in vitro'' (i.e. in a test tube or a petri dish). The exact process by which this is done is still not well understood, although several different theories exist. One of these is a process generally known for heavy metals called the [[oligodynamic effect]], which goes a long way explaining the effect on microbial lifeforms but does not explain certain antiviral functions.
+
== Superstition ==
  
Today, various kinds of silver compounds, or devices to make solutions or colloids containing silver, are sold as remedies for a wide variety of diseases. Although mostly harmless, some people using these home-made solutions use far too much and develop [[argyria]] over a period of months or years, and several have been documented in the last few years in the medical literature, including one possible case of coma associated with a high intake of silver (see medical references). It is strongly advised to notify a doctor when taking silver as a form of self-medication.
+
Given the mysticism surrounding silver's [[Moon|lunar]] associations, the aesthetic qualities of the white metal, and its association with purity, silver in European [[folklore]] has long been traditionally believed to be an antidote to various maladies and fictional [[monster]]s. Notably, silver was believed to be a repellant against [[vampire]]s and the "undead" (deceased individuals who behave as if alive). In addition, it was thought that a [[werewolf]], in its bestial form, could be killed only by a weapon or bullet made of silver. According to Eastern European folklore, the silver bullet was equally effective against vampires. These beliefs gave rise to the term "silver bullet," which is used to describe things designed to cure or fix a wide array of maladies.
  
The widespread use of silver went out of fashion with the invention of [[antibiotics]].  
+
== References ==
 +
All links retrieved August 21, 2007.
  
==References==
 
 
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/47.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Silver]
 
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/47.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Silver]
 +
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ag/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Silver]
  
== External links ==
+
==See also==
{{Commons|Silver}}
+
 
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ag/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Silver]
+
*[[Chemical element]]
*[http://www.silber-minen.de Chart: Silver in Dollar]
+
*[[Gold]]
*[http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/silver/silver_table08.html World mine production of silver, by country]
+
*[[Metal]]
*[http://www.silverinstitute.org The Silver Institute] A silver industry website
+
*[[Periodic table]]
 +
*[[Transition metal]]
 +
 
 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved September 18, 2015.
 +
 
 +
*[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silver/ Silver Statistics and Information] &ndash; [[United States Geological Survey]]
 +
*[http://www.quotesilver.com Today's Silver Price] &ndash; QuoteSilver.com
 +
*[http://www.silverinstitute.org The Silver Institute] &ndash; A silver industry website
 +
*[http://www.theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/Elements/047/index.html A collection of silver items] &ndash; TheodoreGray.com
  
 +
===Publications on health effects===
  
==Medical Publications on the effects of silver==
+
*[http://dermatology.cdlib.org/111/case_reports/argyria/wadhera.html “Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver”] by Akhil Wadhera, M.D. and Max Fung, M.D.
*[http://dermatology.cdlib.org/111/case_reports/argyria/wadhera.html Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver]
+
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=185946 “Specific Inactivation of Herpes Simplex Virus by Silver Nitrate at Low Concentrations and Biological Activities of the Inactivated Virus,”] by Fumio Shimizu, Yoshinobu Shimizu and Katsuo Kumagai
*[http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/full/62/8/1408 Myoclonic status epilepticus following repeated oral ingestion of colloidal silver]
+
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=429446&pageindex=1 “Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits by Silver Sulfadiazine,”] by Te-Wen Chang and Louis Weinstein
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=185946 Specific Inactivation of Herpes Simplex Virus by Silver Nitrate at Low Concentrations and Biological Activities of the Inactivated Virus]
 
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=429446&pageindex=1 Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits By Silver Sulfadiazine]
 
  
 +
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 +
[[Category:Chemistry]]
 
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
 
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
 
[[Category:Silver]]
 
  
[[ca:Plata]]
+
{{credit|77014061}}
[[cs:Stříbro]]
 
[[cy:Arian (elfen)]]
 
[[da:Sølv]]
 
[[de:Silber]]
 
[[et:Hõbe]]
 
[[es:Plata]]
 
[[eo:Arĝento]]
 
[[fr:Argent]]
 
[[io:Arjento]]
 
[[id:Perak]]
 
[[is:Silfur]]
 
[[it:Argento]]
 
[[he:כסף (יסוד)]]
 
[[ku:Zîv]]
 
[[lv:Sudrabs]]
 
[[lt:Sidabras]]
 
[[lb:Sëlwer]]
 
[[hu:Ezüst]]
 
[[mi:Kawata]]
 
[[nl:Zilver]]
 
[[nds:Sülver]]
 
[[ja:銀]]
 
[[no:Sølv]]
 
[[nn:Sølv]]
 
[[oc:Argent]]
 
[[pl:Srebro]]
 
[[pt:Prata]]
 
[[ro:Argint]]
 
[[ru:Серебро]]
 
[[simple:Silver]]
 
[[sl:Srebro]]
 
[[sr:Сребро]]
 
[[fi:Hopea]]
 
[[sv:Silver]]
 
[[ta:வெள்ளி]]
 
[[tt:Kömeş]]
 
[[th:เงิน]]
 
[[vi:Bạc]]
 
[[uk:Срібло]]
 
[[zh:銀]]
 

Revision as of 16:53, 18 September 2015

47 palladiumsilvercadmium
Cu

Ag

Au
Ag-TableImage.png
periodic table
General
Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47
Chemical series transition metals
Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d
Appearance lustrous white metal
Ag,47.jpg
Atomic mass 107.8682(2) g/mol
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10 5s1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 1
Physical properties
Color silver
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 10.49 g/cm³
Liquid density at m.p. 9.320 g/cm³
Melting point 1234.93 K
(961.78 °C, 1763.2 °F)
Boiling point 2435 K
(2162 °C, 3924 °F)
Heat of fusion 11.28 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 258 kJ/mol
Heat capacity (25 °C) 25.350 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1283 1413 1575 1782 2055 2433
Atomic properties
Crystal structure face-centered cubic
Oxidation states 1
(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 1.93 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 731.0 kJ/mol
2nd: 2070 kJ/mol
3rd: 3361 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 160 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 165 pm
Covalent radius 153 pm
Van der Waals radius 172 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 15.87 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 429 W/(m·K)
Thermal diffusivity (300 K) 174 mm²/s
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 18.9 µm/(m·K)
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 2680 m/s
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 83 m/s
Shear modulus 30 GPa
Bulk modulus 100 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.37
Mohs hardness 2.5
Vickers hardness 251 MPa
Brinell hardness 24.5 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-22-4
Notable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of silver
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
105Ag syn 41.2 d ε - 105Pd
γ 0.344, 0.280,
0.644, 0.443
-
106mAg syn 8.28 d ε - 106Pd
γ 0.511, 0.717,
1.045, 0.450
-
107Ag 51.839% Ag is stable with 60 neutrons
108mAg syn 418 y ε - 108Pd
IT 0.109 108Ag
γ 0.433, 0.614,
0.722
-
109Ag 48.161% Ag is stable with 62 neutrons
111Ag syn 7.45 d β- 1.036, 0.694 111Cd
γ 0.342 -

Silver (chemical symbol Ag, atomic number 47) is a soft metal with a brilliant white luster that can take a high degree of polish. Along with copper and gold, it is one of the coinage metals. It is also considered a noble metal—a metal that resists corrosion. Of all metals, silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity. In nature, silver has been found in the free form as well as in the form of some compounds, and it has been extracted and used since antiquity.

Culturally, silver has been associated with the Moon and feminine nature, while gold has been associated with the Sun and masculine nature. In addition, given its attractive white coloration, silver has been taken to symbolize purity.

Silver is considered a precious metal often sold as an investment commodity. This metal and its alloys are used in making coins, jewelry, tableware, mirrors, printed circuit boards, and electronic products. The nitrate and halides of silver are valuable in photography. In addition, silver chloride is used as a cement for glass objects and in making electrodes to test the acidity of solutions; silver oxide is an electrode for watch batteries; and silver fulminate is an explosive. Elemental silver is nontoxic, but most silver salts are toxic when ingested at relatively high concentrations. At low concentrations, some silver compounds have been used successfully to prevent infections.

Occurrence and extraction

Silver ore (penny shown for scale)

Silver is found in native form and in various ores such as argentite (silver sulfide, Ag2S) and horn silver (silver chloride, AgCl). It may also be found combined with arsenic or antimony. The principal sources of silver are copper, copper-nickel, gold, lead, and lead-zinc ores obtained from Canada, Mexico, Peru, Australia, and the United States.

Mexico is the world's largest silver producer. According to the secretary of economics of Mexico, it produced 80,120,000 troy ounces (2,492 metric tons) in 2000, about 15 percent of the annual worldwide production.

Silver is produced during the electrolytic refining of copper. Commercial grade fine silver is at least 99.9 percent pure silver, and purities higher than 99.999 percent are available.

Etymology and history

A silver nugget

The name silver is derived from the Anglo-Saxon seolfor (compare with Old High German silabar). Its chemical symbol, Ag, is an abbreviation of the Latin word argentum.

Silver has been known since ancient times. Slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that it was being separated from lead as early as the fourth millennium B.C.E. Historically, it has been used for making ornaments and utensils. In addition, it has been used for trade and as the basis for many monetary systems. Its value as a precious metal was long considered second only to gold. In ancient Egypt and medieval Europe, it was often more valuable than gold.

In the Bible, silver is mentioned as early as the Book of Genesis. In the New Testament, Judas Iscariot is recorded as having taken a bribe of 30 pieces of silver from religious leaders in Jerusalem to turn Jesus Christ over to the Romans.

Alchemical symbol for silver

Associated with the Moon, the sea, and various lunar goddesses, the metal was referred to by alchemists by the name luna. One of the alchemical symbols for silver is a crescent moon with the concave part on the left (see diagram on the left).

The metal mercury was once thought of as a kind of silver, though the two elements are chemically unrelated. The Latin name for mercury was hydrargyrum, meaning "watery silver," and the English name was quicksilver.

Europeans found huge quantities of silver in the New World, such as in Zacatecas, Mexico and Potosí, Bolivia. The conquistador Francisco Pizarro was said to have resorted to having his horses shod with silver horseshoes because the metal was relatively abundant. By contrast, there was a relative lack of iron in Peru. Aside from that, silver was extremely valuable elsewhere, making it a global commodity and triggering a period of inflation in Europe. These developments contributed to the rise of the Spanish Empire. The rise and fall of the value of silver affected the world market.

The Rio de la Plata was named after silver, after the Spanish word plata. In addition, Argentina got its name from the Latin word for silver.

Silver mining was a driving force in the settlement of western North America, with major booms for silver and its associated minerals, particularly lead in the galena ore that silver is most commonly found in. Notable "silver rushes" took place in Colorado, Nevada, California, Ontario, and the Kootenay region of British Columbia. The largest silver ore deposits in the United States were discovered at the Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nevada, in 1859.

Notable characteristics

In the periodic table, silver is a member of the group of transition metals in period 5, situated between palladium and cadmium. In addition, it lies in group 11 (former group 1B), between copper and gold.

Silver is a very ductile and malleable and is slightly harder than gold. It is stable in pure air and water, but it tarnishes when exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide, or air containing sulfur.

It has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, even higher than that of copper. Yet, its higher cost and tarnishability have prevented it from replacing copper for electrical purposes. Pure silver also has the highest thermal conductivity, whitest color, highest optical reflectivity (except for being a poor reflector of ultraviolet light), and the lowest contact resistance of any metal.

In combining with other elements, its most common oxidation state is +1, such as in silver nitrate (AgNO3) and silver chloride (AgCl). In some compounds, such as silver(II) fluoride (AgF2), its oxidation number is +2. It also forms a few compounds, such as silver(III) persulfate (Ag2(SO5)3), in which its oxidation state is +3. Silver chloride and other silver halides are photosensitive and remarkable for the effect of light upon them.

Oxygen dissolves in silver relatively easily, compared to other gases present in air. Attempts have been made to construct silver membranes that are only a few monolayers in thickness. Such a membrane could be used to filter pure oxygen from air.

Isotopes

Isotopes of silver range in atomic weight from 93.943 atomic mass units (amu) (94Ag) to 123.929 amu (124Ag). Naturally occurring silver is composed of the two stable isotopes, 107Ag and 109Ag, with 107Ag being the more abundant (51.839 percent natural abundance). In addition, 28 radioisotopes have been characterized, of which 105Ag (the most stable) has a half-life of 41.29 days, 111Ag has a half-life of 7.45 days, and 112Ag has a half-life of 3.13 hours.

All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than three minutes. Silver also has numerous meta states, with the most stable being 128mAg (t* 418 years), 110mAg (t* 249.79 days), and 107mAg (t* 8.28 days).

The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 107Ag, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before 107Ag are palladium (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.

Applications

Silver bullion bar

The principal use of silver is as a precious metal. The price of silver, however, has gone through dramatic fluctuations. Its salts, especially silver nitrate and silver halides, are also widely used in photography, the largest single end use of silver. Some other uses of silver and its compounds are given below.

  • Some electrical and electronic products need silver's superior conductivity, even when tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using silver paints, and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Silver (silver cadmium oxide) is also used in high voltage contacts because it can minimize electric arcing.
  • Mirrors that need superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the reflecting material in a process called silvering. Common mirrors, however, are backed with aluminum.
  • Silver has been coined to produce money since at least 700 B.C.E. by the Lydians, in the form known as electrum. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. The words for "silver" and "money" are the same in at least 14 languages.
  • The metal is chosen for its beauty in the manufacture of jewelry and silverware. They are traditionally made from the silver alloy known as sterling silver, which is 92.5 percent silver, usually alloyed with copper. The British monetary unit 'pound' originally had the value of one troy pound of sterling silver.
  • Silver is also used in medals—usually denoting second place, after gold.
  • The malleability, nontoxicity, and beauty of silver make it useful in dental alloys for fittings and fillings.
  • Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a catalyst in oxidation reactions. Examples include the production of formaldehyde from methanol and air by means of silver screens or crystallites containing a minimum 99.95 weight-percent of silver. Also, silver (on a suitable support) is probably the only catalyst currently available to convert ethylene to ethylene oxide. The latter can be hydrolyzed to ethylene glycol, which is used for making polyesters—a very important industrial reaction.
  • Silver is used to make solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts, and high-capacity silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries.
  • Silver fulminate is a powerful explosive.
  • Silver chloride can be made transparent and is used as a cement for glass.
  • Silver chloride is also a widely used electrode for testing pH (acidity or basicity) and potentiometric measurement.
  • Silver iodide has been used in attempts to seed clouds to produce rain.
  • Silver oxide is used as a positive electrode (cathode) in watch batteries.
  • Colloidal silver is a possible antibacterial/antibiotic treatment espoused in alternative medicine. It is, however, notorious for causing argyria, as noted below.
  • Silver nitrate (liquid) was a standard of care but was largely replaced by silver sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream) for the antibacterial/antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s. Now, other options such as silver-coated dressings (activated silver dressings) are used in addition to SSD cream—they may present advantages such as pain reduction and capacity for treatment at home.
  • In India, some foods and confectionery items may be decorated with a thin silver film known as Varak.

Medical uses

Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, wrote that silver had beneficial healing and anti-disease properties. The Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early 1900s, people would put silver dollars in milk bottles, in the belief that it prolonged the milk's freshness. Before the advent of antibiotics, silver compounds were used successfully to prevent infection, such as during World War I.

The widespread use of silver in medicine went out of fashion with the development of modern antibiotics. Recently, however, there has been renewed interest in silver as a broad spectrum antimicrobial. In particular, it is being used with alginate, a naturally occurring biopolymer derived from seaweed. A range of silver alginate products have been designed to prevent infections as part of wound management procedures, particularly for burn victims.

Health precautions

Silver plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of silver are a subject of dispute. Silver itself is not toxic, but most silver salts are, and some may be carcinogenic.

Silver (particularly colloidal silver) and its compounds can be absorbed into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues, leading to a condition called argyria. This condition produces a blue-gray pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Although this condition does not harm a person's health, it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare and mild forms are sometimes mistaken for cyanosis.

Silver ions and compounds have a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae, and fungi, similar to the toxicity of heavy metals like lead or mercury. For humans, however, they do not have the high toxicity associated with lead and mercury.

Alternative medicine

Today, a variety of silver compounds, or devices to make solutions or colloids containing silver, are sold as remedies for a wide range of diseases. Although mostly harmless, some people using these home-made solutions use far too much and develop argyria over a period of months or years. Several cases have been documented in the last few years in the medical literature, including one possible case of coma associated with high intake of silver (see medical references). It is strongly advised to notify a doctor when taking silver as a form of self-medication.

Superstition

Given the mysticism surrounding silver's lunar associations, the aesthetic qualities of the white metal, and its association with purity, silver in European folklore has long been traditionally believed to be an antidote to various maladies and fictional monsters. Notably, silver was believed to be a repellant against vampires and the "undead" (deceased individuals who behave as if alive). In addition, it was thought that a werewolf, in its bestial form, could be killed only by a weapon or bullet made of silver. According to Eastern European folklore, the silver bullet was equally effective against vampires. These beliefs gave rise to the term "silver bullet," which is used to describe things designed to cure or fix a wide array of maladies.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

All links retrieved August 21, 2007.

See also

External links

All links retrieved September 18, 2015.

Publications on health effects

Credits

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