Difference between revisions of "Pillars of Islam" - New World Encyclopedia

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The hajj to the Kaaba in Mecca is one of the most important (and revered) pillars of Islam

The Five Pillars of Islam refers to "the five duties incumbent on every Muslim," consisting of the shahadah (profession of faith), salat (ritual prayer), zakat (alms tax), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).^[1]^[2] Sometimes exceptions are made to some of these duties in exceptional circumstances. The centrality of these pillars signifies the tremendous role that Islam places upon praxis and submission to the will of God. The five pillars affirm that Islam is a religion of active commitment and staunch monotheism. In each case, the ultimate goal is for the adherent to further his or her unwavering submission to the will of the Allah.

Shahadah

The first and most important Pillar of Islam is the affirmation of the shahadah (شهادة, "witness"),^[3] a concise credal statement that summarizes the essentials of Muslim belief in a single line: "ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" ("I testify that there is no god (ilah) but Allah, and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah"). It should be noted that Shi'a Muslims append the phrase "... and Ali is the Friend of God" to the shahadah, reflecting their slightly disparate understanding of divine revelation.^[4]

This pithy faith statement functions as the foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. It is a major component of all prayers (discussed below) and, when sincerely believed and internalized, represents conversion to the Islamic faith: Ideally, it is thought to book-end the believer's life, as it should be the first thing a newborn will hear and will be recited to them at the time of death.^[5]^[6] It, perhaps more than any of the other pillars, represents the extent to which Islam is centered upon a submission to (and rededication of one's life towards) the divine:

The shahadah must be repeated and lived until the implicit realization has penetrated to the center of [the believer's] being, until through concentration upon the truth, and virtue, the individual substance is transformed and itself made adequate to the truth.^[7]

Salat

The second pillar of Islam is salat ("prayer," "worship")^[8] the requirement to perform five daily prayers at fixed times during the day.^[9] Each salah is performed facing towards the Kabah in Mecca, the symbolic center of the faith, and consists of "a set pattern of recitations and bodily movements repeated a set number of times."^[10] Salah is intended to focus the mind on Allah; it is seen as a personal communication with the divine, expressing the believer's gratitude and reverence. According to the Qur'an, the benefit of prayer "restrains [one] from shameful and evil deeds."^[11] While salah is compulsory, some flexibility is allowed depending on an individual's particular circumstances.^[12] For example in the case of sickness or lack of space, a worshiper can offer salah while sitting, or even lying down, and the prayer can be shortened when traveling.^[13]

The salah must be performed in the Arabic language to the best of each worshiper's ability. If he or she cannot speak Arabic, then the native language can be used, although any extra prayers (du'a) said afterwards need not be in Arabic. The lines of prayer are to be recited by heart (although beginners may use written aids), and the worshiper's body and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be cleansed. All prayers should be conducted within the prescribed time period (waqt) and with the appropriate number of units (raka'ah).^[14] While the prayers may be made at any point within the waqt, it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the call to prayer is heard.^[15]

Ritual Purity

The importance of ritual purity (tahir) to a practicing Muslim is evidenced by the Prophet’s statement that "the key to paradise is prayer [salat] and the key to prayer is purification."^[16] Indeed, if one has been defiled, they are prohibited from taking part in any ritual observances: though "purification is not a part of the ritual of worship itself," it is "preliminary to most acts of Islamic practice."^[17] The ablutions that must be performed to achieve this state of purity can be divided into two categories: wudu and ghusl. The former consists of a ritualized washing, during which the Muslim must wet a series of body parts and recite a number of Shahadas in sequence.^[18] The later is a ritualized bath whereby the entire body is washed according to a ritual formula, and with a properly pious mindset.^[19]

Zakat

Zakat ("purification"),^[20] religiously mandated almsgiving, refers to the Muslim obligation to consign a certain portion of their income to charity. This is considered to be a personal responsibility for all Muslims believers who have the financial means to do so.^[21] Further, a Muslim may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity (sadaqah), in order to achieve additional divine reward.^[22] It is important to note that attitudinal difference between the practice of zakat and the Western understanding of charity:

In Islam, the giving of alms is seen more as worship, and is the third pillar of Islam. The emphasis is not so much on the objective or the recipient as it is on the act of giving—that is to say, on the donor. In fact, the recipient is technically God Himself, and whoever receives the alms is in theory benefiting not from the generosity of the immediate donor but from the mercy of God. The greater benefit is to the donor. It is good to give away part of one’s money, since it lessens one’s attachment to the rest. Such a donation is said to “purify” what remains. It is also, like the sala, a periodic acknowledgment of one’s duty to God.^[23]

There are two main types of zakah: first, there is the zakah al-fitr, which is a fixed amount based on the cost of food, that is paid during the month of Ramadan by the head of a family to support the destitute; second, there is the zakat on wealth, which covers money made in business, savings, income, and so on.^[24]^[25] In current usage, zakat is treated as a 2.5 percent levy on most valuables and savings held for a full lunar year, as long as the total value is more than a basic minimum known as nisab (three ounces or 87.48 g of gold). As of August 31, 2007, nisab is approximately US$1825.00 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.^[26]

Sawm

Muslims traditionally break their fasts in Ramadan with dates (like those offered by this date seller in Kuwait City), as was the practice (Sunnah) of Muhammad

The fourth Pillar of Islam, sawm ("fasting") is divided into three types by the Qur'an: ritual fasting (2:183-187), fasting as compensation or repentance (2:196) and ascetic fasting (33:35).

Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan, when Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse throughout the day. They are also expected to be especially mindful of other sins.^[27] The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness to Allah, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, to atone for their past sins, and to remind themselves of their responsibilities to the needy.^[28] During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, harsh language, and gossip.^[29]

Fasting during Ramadan is not obligatory to individuals in several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic. These include pre-pubescent children, those with a medical conditions such as diabetes, elderly people, and menstruating, pregnant or breastfeeding women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those in combat and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. However, any fasting that was missed for a non-permanent reason is usually expected to be made up soon afterwards, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance:^[30]

O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint, (Fasting) for a fixed number of days; but if any of you is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed number (Should be made up) from days later. For those who can do it (With hardship), is a ransom, the feeding of one that is indigent. (Qur'an 2:183-184)

Hajj

The Hajj ("greater pilgrimage")^[31] is a the religiously mandated journey to the city of Mecca, which occurs annually during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. The rite serves two symbolic purposes, representing events from Abraham's life and also celebrating various episodes from the life of Muhammad.^[32]John L. Esposito (ed.), "Hajj," Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2003, Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007]</ref> Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.^[33]

While the hajj includes many diverse ritual elements (from prayers, to throwing stones at pillars, to circumambulating the Kaaba), the overarching unity of these rituals is to create an atmosphere of sacred time. Thus, the ritual can be seen as a definitive example of a rite of passage, designed to transform the attitudes and world-views of those who perform it:

Few Muslims are unchanged by their experience of the Hajj: on their return to their homes and their normal lives, the religious element of life remains in the foreground, more real than the visible realities of normal life. Forever after, a photograph of the Kabaa reminds the former pilgrim of the intensity of the experience of Hajj, rather as a photograph of a small child warms the heart of its grandparent.^[34]

Footnotes

↑ Cyril Glassé (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Islam (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2001, ISBN 0759101892), 146-147.
↑ Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Vol. 2, The Contemporary Period: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London: Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 978-0203396537), 127-141.
↑ John L. Esposito (ed.), "Shahadah," Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2003; Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
↑ Malise Ruthven, Islam : A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0585111219), 147.
↑ Rippin, 129.
↑ Caesar Farah, Islam: Beliefs and Observances, 5th ed. (Barron's Educational Series, 1994, ISBN 978-0812018530), 135.
↑ Glassé, 417.
↑ John L. Esposito (ed.), "Salat," Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2003, Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
↑ Ahmed Nezar Kobeisy, Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2004, ISBN 978-0313324727), 22-34.
↑ Rippin, 130.
↑ Qur'an 29:40; Kobeisy, 22-34.
↑ Muhammad Hedáyetullah, Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition (Oxford: Trafford Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1553698425), 53-55.
↑ Ibid.
↑ Sedgwick, 70-72; Hedáyetullah 2006, 53-55.
↑ Erwin Fahlbusch and William Geoffrey Bromiley (eds.), "Islam," Encyclopedia of Christianity (Eerdmans Publishing Company/Brill, 2001, ISBN 0802824145).
↑ Quoted in Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994, ISBN 0023285206), 113.
↑ A. Kevin Reinhart, "Impurity / No Danger," History of Religions 30 (Aug. 1990): 1-26. pp. 2, 6.
↑ Denny, 115.
↑ Glassé, 157.
↑ Glassé, 488: This refers to the purification of one's wealth through an attitudinal re-adjustment.
↑ Lloyd Ridgeon, Major World Religions, 1st ed. (RoutledgeCurzon, 2003, ISBN 978-0415297967), 258.
↑ P. J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, "Zakah," Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. Subscription required.
↑ Mark J. Sedgwick, Islam & Muslims: A Guide to Diverse Experience in a Modern World (Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2006, ISBN 1931930163), 74.
↑ Jonathan Brockopp, Tamara Sonn and Jacob Neusner, Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook (Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0415216737), 140.
↑ Reuben Levy, The Social Structure of Islam (Cambridge University Press, 1957, ISBN 978-0521091824), 150.
↑ Zakat Calculator, Ramahdan Zone. Retrieved August 31, 2007.
↑ Farah, 144-145.
↑ John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0195112344), 90-91.
↑ Also, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. See Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn Tabatabaei, Islamic Teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam, Translated by R. Campbell (New York: Mostazafan Foundation of New York, 2002, ISBN 0922817006), 211-213.
↑ “For whom fasting is mandatory,” USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, University of Southern California. Retrieved August 31, 2007.
↑ Glassé, 358.
↑ Glassé, 359.
↑ Farah, 145-147.
↑ Sedgwick, 80.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Books and Journals

Brockopp, Jonathan, Tamara Sonn and Jacob Neusner. Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0415216737
Delcambre, Anne-Marie. Inside Islam, 3rd ed. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 2005. ISBN 1423733460
Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994. ISBN 0023285206
Esposito, John. Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0195112344
Farah, Caesar. Islam: Beliefs and Observances, 5th ed. Barron's Educational Series, 1994. ISBN 978-0812018530
Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr., and Lawrence Davidson. A Concise History of the Middle East, 8th ed. Westview Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0813342757
Hedáyetullah, Muhammad. Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Oxford: Trafford Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1553698425
Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar. Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2004. ISBN 978-0313324727
Levy, Reuben. The Social Structure of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957. ISBN 978-0521091824
Reinhart, A. Kevin. "Impurity / No Danger." History of Religions 30 (Aug. 1990): 1-26.
Rippin, Andrew. Muslims: Vol. 2, The Contemporary Period: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Taylor & Francis, 2003. ISBN 978-0203396537
Ridgeon, Lloyd. Major World Religions, 1st ed. RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. ISBN 978-0415297967
Ruthven, Malise. Islam : A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0585111219
Sedgwick, Mark J. Islam & Muslims: A Guide to Diverse Experience in a Modern World. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2006. ISBN 1931930163
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn and R. Campbell (trans.). Islamic Teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. New York: Mostazafan Foundation of New York, 2002. ISBN 0922817006

Dictionaries and Encyclopedias

Bearman, P. J., T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
Esposito, John L. Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195125584
Fahlbusch, Erwin and William Geoffrey Bromiley (eds.) Encyclopedia of Christianity. Eerdmans Publishing Company/Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0802824145
Frank, Salamone. Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 978-0415941808
Glassé, Cyril. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0759101892

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[1] Cyril Glassé (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Islam (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2001, ISBN 0759101892), 146-147.

[2] Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Vol. 2, The Contemporary Period: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London: Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 978-0203396537), 127-141.

[3] John L. Esposito (ed.), "Shahadah," Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2003; Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007.

[4] Malise Ruthven, Islam : A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0585111219), 147.

[5] Rippin, 129.

[6] Caesar Farah, Islam: Beliefs and Observances, 5th ed. (Barron's Educational Series, 1994, ISBN 978-0812018530), 135.

[7] Glassé, 417.

[8] John L. Esposito (ed.), "Salat," Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2003, Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007.

[9] Ahmed Nezar Kobeisy, Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2004, ISBN 978-0313324727), 22-34.

[10] Rippin, 130.

[11] Qur'an 29:40; Kobeisy, 22-34.

[12] Muhammad Hedáyetullah, Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition (Oxford: Trafford Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1553698425), 53-55.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Sedgwick, 70-72; Hedáyetullah 2006, 53-55.

[15] Erwin Fahlbusch and William Geoffrey Bromiley (eds.), "Islam," Encyclopedia of Christianity (Eerdmans Publishing Company/Brill, 2001, ISBN 0802824145).

[16] Quoted in Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994, ISBN 0023285206), 113.

[17] A. Kevin Reinhart, "Impurity / No Danger," History of Religions 30 (Aug. 1990): 1-26. pp. 2, 6.

[18] Denny, 115.

[19] Glassé, 157.

[20] Glassé, 488: This refers to the purification of one's wealth through an attitudinal re-adjustment.

[21] Lloyd Ridgeon, Major World Religions, 1st ed. (RoutledgeCurzon, 2003, ISBN 978-0415297967), 258.

[22] P. J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, "Zakah," Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. Subscription required.

[23] Mark J. Sedgwick, Islam & Muslims: A Guide to Diverse Experience in a Modern World (Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2006, ISBN 1931930163), 74.

[24] Jonathan Brockopp, Tamara Sonn and Jacob Neusner, Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook (Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0415216737), 140.

[25] Reuben Levy, The Social Structure of Islam (Cambridge University Press, 1957, ISBN 978-0521091824), 150.

[26] Zakat Calculator, Ramahdan Zone. Retrieved August 31, 2007.

[27] Farah, 144-145.

[28] John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0195112344), 90-91.

[29] Also, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. See Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn Tabatabaei, Islamic Teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam, Translated by R. Campbell (New York: Mostazafan Foundation of New York, 2002, ISBN 0922817006), 211-213.

[30] “For whom fasting is mandatory,” USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, University of Southern California. Retrieved August 31, 2007.

[31] Glassé, 358.

[32] Glassé, 359.

[33] Farah, 145-147.

[34] Sedgwick, 80.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Started}}{{Contracted}}
+{{Copyedited}}{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Paid}}
-{{Islam}}
-The '''Five Pillars of [[Islam]]''' is the term given to "the five duties incumbent on every Muslim". These duties are [[shahadah]] (profession of faith), [[salah]] (ritual prayer), [[zakat]] (alms tax), [[sawm]] (fasting during [[Ramadan]]), and [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref>"Pillars of Islam", ''Encyclopaedia Britannica Online'' (2007)</ref>
+[[Image:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|right|240 px|thumb|The ''[[hajj]]'' to the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] is one of the most important (and revered) pillars of Islam]]
+The '''Five Pillars of Islam''' refers to "the five duties incumbent on every Muslim," consisting of the ''[[shahadah]]'' (profession of [[faith]]), ''[[salat]]'' (ritual prayer), ''[[zakat]]'' ([[almsgiving|alms]] tax), ''[[sawm]]'' ([[fasting]] during [[Ramadan]]), and ''[[hajj]]'' (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref>Cyril Glassé (ed.), ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2001, ISBN 0759101892), 146-147.</ref><ref>Andrew Rippin, ''Muslims: Vol. 2, The Contemporary Period: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'' (London: Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 978-0203396537), 127-141.</ref> Sometimes exceptions are made to some of these duties in exceptional circumstances. The centrality of these pillars signifies the tremendous role that Islam places upon [[praxis]] and submission to the will of God. The five pillars affirm that Islam is a religion of active commitment and staunch [[monotheism]]. In each case, the ultimate goal is for the adherent to further his or her unwavering submission to the will of the [[Allah]].
 ==Shahadah==
-The shahadah ([[Arabic]]: {{Audio|ar_shahadah.ogg|<big>'''شهادة'''</big>}}  {{ArTranslit|Šahādah}}) ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Şehadet'') is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{ArabDIN|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is no [[Ilah|god (ilah)]]  but [[God in Islam|Allah]], and I testify that [[Muhammad]] is the [[rasul|messenger]] of Allah". As the most important pillar, this testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a newborn will hear, and children are taught as soon as they are able to understand it and it will also be recited when they die. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>Farah (1994), p.135</ref>
+The first and most important Pillar of Islam is the affirmation of the ''shahadah'' (<big>'''شهادة'''</big>, "witness"),<ref>John L. Esposito (ed.), [http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t125.e2154 "Shahadah,"] ''Oxford Dictionary of Islam'' (Oxford University Press, 2003; Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007.</ref> a concise credal statement that summarizes the essentials of Muslim belief in a single line: "''ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh''" ("I testify that there is no god (''ilah'') but [[Allah]], and I testify that [[Muhammad]] is the [[prophet|messenger]] of Allah"). It should be noted that [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a Muslims]] append the phrase "... and Ali is the Friend of God" to the ''shahadah'', reflecting their slightly disparate understanding of divine revelation.<ref>Malise Ruthven, ''Islam : A Very Short Introduction'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0585111219), 147.</ref>
-==Salah==
+This pithy [[faith]] statement functions as the foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. It is a major component of all prayers ([[#Salat|discussed below]]) and, when sincerely believed and internalized, represents conversion to the Islamic faith: Ideally, it is thought to book-end the believer's life, as it should be the first thing a newborn will hear and will be recited to them at the time of death.<ref>Rippin, 129.</ref><ref>Caesar Farah, ''Islam: Beliefs and Observances'', 5th ed. (Barron's Educational Series, 1994, ISBN 978-0812018530), 135.</ref> It, perhaps more than any of the other pillars, represents the extent to which Islam is centered upon a submission to (and rededication of one's life towards) the divine:
-The second pillar of Islam is ''[[salah]]'', the requirement to pray five times a day at fixed times.<ref name="Kobeisy1">Kobeisy (2004), pp.22-34</ref> Each salah is performed facing towards the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on Allah; it is seen as a personal communication with Allah, expressing gratitude and worship. According to the Qur'an, the benefit of prayer "restrains [one] from shameful and evil deeds".{{cite quran|29|40}}<ref name="Kobeisy1"/> Salah is compulsory but some flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on the circumstances.<ref name="Heday1">Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53-55</ref> For example in the case of sickness or lack of space, a worshiper can offer salah while sitting, or even lying down, and the prayer can be shortened when traveling.<ref name="Heday1"/>
+:The shahadah must be repeated and lived until the implicit realization has penetrated to the center of [the believer's] being, until through concentration upon the truth, and virtue, the individual substance is transformed and itself made adequate to the truth.<ref>Glassé, 417.</ref>
-The salah must be performed in the [[Arabic language]] to the best of each worshiper's ability, if he or she cannot speak Arabic, then the native language can be used, although any extra prayers (''[[du'a]]'') said afterwards need not be in Arabic. The lines of prayer are to be recited by heart (although beginners may use written aids), and the worshiper's body and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be [[wudu|cleansed]].<ref name="Heday1"/> All prayers should be conducted within the prescribed time period (''[[waqt]]'') and with the appropriate number of units (''[[raka'ah]]''). While the prayers may be made at any point within the waqt, it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the [[Adhan|call to prayer]] is heard.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001)</ref>
+==Salat==
+The second pillar of Islam is ''[[salat]]'' ("prayer," "worship")<ref>John L. Esposito (ed.), [http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t125.e2075 "Salat,"] ''Oxford Dictionary of Islam'' (Oxford University Press, 2003, Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007.</ref> the requirement to perform five daily prayers at fixed times during the day.<ref>Ahmed Nezar Kobeisy, ''Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People'' (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2004, ISBN 978-0313324727), 22-34.</ref> Each salah is performed facing towards the [[Kabah]] in [[Mecca]], the symbolic center of the faith, and consists of "a set pattern of recitations and bodily movements repeated a set number of times."<ref>Rippin, 130.</ref> Salah is intended to focus the mind on [[Allah]]; it is seen as a personal communication with the divine, expressing the believer's gratitude and reverence. According to the Qur'an, the benefit of prayer "restrains [one] from shameful and evil deeds."<ref>Qur'an 29:40; Kobeisy, 22-34.</ref> While salah is compulsory, some flexibility is allowed depending on an individual's particular circumstances.<ref>Muhammad Hedáyetullah, ''Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition'' (Oxford: Trafford Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1553698425), 53-55.</ref> For example in the case of sickness or lack of space, a worshiper can offer salah while sitting, or even lying down, and the prayer can be shortened when traveling.<ref>''Ibid''.</ref>
-==Zakah==
+The salah must be performed in the [[Arabic language]] to the best of each worshiper's ability. If he or she cannot speak Arabic, then the native language can be used, although any extra prayers (''[[du'a]]'') said afterwards need not be in Arabic. The lines of prayer are to be recited by heart (although beginners may use written aids), and the worshiper's body and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be [[wudu|cleansed]]. All prayers should be conducted within the prescribed time period (''[[waqt]]'') and with the appropriate number of units (''[[raka'ah]]'').<ref>Sedgwick, 70-72; Hedáyetullah 2006, 53-55.</ref> While the prayers may be made at any point within the ''waqt'', it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the [[Adhan|call to prayer]] is heard.<ref>Erwin Fahlbusch and William Geoffrey Bromiley (eds.), "Islam," ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (Eerdmans Publishing Company/Brill, 2001, ISBN 0802824145).</ref>
-''[[Zakah]]'', or [[alms|alms-giving]], is the practice of charitable giving by Muslims based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all who are able to do so. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality.<ref>Ridgeon (2003), p.258</ref> Zakah consists of spending a fixed portion of one's wealth for the benefit of the [[Poverty|poor]] or needy, including [[Slavery|slaves]], debtors, travelers, and others. A [[Muslim]] may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity (''[[sadaqah]]''), in order to achieve additional divine reward.<ref>"Zakah", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref>
-There are two main types of zakah. First, there is the zakah on traffic, which is a fixed amount based on the cost of food that is paid during the month of [[Ramadan]] by the head of a family for himself and his dependents. Second, there is the zakat on wealth, which covers money made in business, savings, income, and so on.<ref>Brockopp (2000), p.140; Levy (1957) p.150; Jonsson (2006), p.244</ref> In current usage zakat is treated as a 2.5% levy on most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar]] year, as long as the total value is more than a basic minimum known as ''[[nisab]]'' (3 [[ounce]]s or 87.48 g of gold). As of [[16 October]] [[2006]], nisab is approximately US $1,750 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.<ref>{{cite web | title=Zakat Calculator | url=http://www.ramadhanzone.com/zakat_calculator.asp | date=2006-10-16 |accessdate = 2006-11-25}}</ref>
+===Ritual Purity===
+The importance of ritual purity (''tahir'') to a practicing Muslim is evidenced by the Prophet’s statement that "the key to paradise is prayer [salat] and the key to prayer is purification."<ref>Quoted in Frederick Mathewson Denny, ''An Introduction to Islam'' (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994, ISBN 0023285206), 113.</ref> Indeed, if one has been defiled, they are prohibited from taking part in any ritual observances: though "purification is not a part of the ritual of worship itself," it is "preliminary to most acts of Islamic practice."<ref>A. Kevin Reinhart, "Impurity / No Danger," ''History of Religions'' 30 (Aug. 1990): 1-26. pp. 2, 6.</ref> The ablutions that must be performed to achieve this state of purity can be divided into two categories: [[wudu]] and [[ghusl]]. The former consists of a ritualized washing, during which the Muslim must wet a series of body parts and recite a number of [[Shahada]]s in sequence.<ref>Denny, 115.</ref> The later is a ritualized bath whereby the entire body is washed according to a ritual formula, and with a properly pious mindset.<ref>Glassé, 157.</ref>
+==Zakat==
+''[[Zakat]]'' ("purification"),<ref>Glassé, 488: This refers to the purification of one's wealth through an attitudinal re-adjustment.</ref> religiously mandated [[almsgiving]], refers to the Muslim obligation to consign a certain portion of their income to charity. This is considered to be a personal responsibility for all Muslims believers who have the financial means to do so.<ref>Lloyd Ridgeon, ''Major World Religions'', 1st ed. (RoutledgeCurzon, 2003, ISBN 978-0415297967), 258.</ref> Further, a [[Muslim]] may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity (''[[sadaqah]])'', in order to achieve additional divine reward.<ref>P. J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, "Zakah," ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''. Brill Academic Publishers. Subscription required.</ref> It is important to note that attitudinal difference between the practice of ''zakat'' and the Western understanding of [[charity]]:
+<blockquote>In Islam, the giving of alms is seen more as worship, and is the third pillar of Islam. The emphasis is not so much on the objective or the recipient as it is on the act of giving—that is to say, on the donor. In fact, the recipient is technically God Himself, and whoever receives the alms is in theory benefiting not from the generosity of the immediate donor but from the mercy of God. The greater benefit is to the donor. It is good to give away part of one’s money, since it lessens one’s attachment to the rest. Such a donation is said to “purify” what remains. It is also, like the sala, a periodic acknowledgment of one’s duty to God.<ref>Mark J. Sedgwick, ''Islam & Muslims: A Guide to Diverse Experience in a Modern World'' (Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2006, ISBN 1931930163), 74.</ref></blockquote>
+There are two main types of zakah: first, there is the ''zakah al-fitr'', which is a fixed amount based on the cost of [[food]], that is paid during the month of [[Ramadan]] by the head of a family to support the destitute; second, there is the zakat on wealth, which covers money made in business, savings, income, and so on.<ref>Jonathan Brockopp, Tamara Sonn and Jacob Neusner, ''Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook'' (Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0415216737), 140.</ref><ref>Reuben Levy, ''The Social Structure of Islam'' (Cambridge University Press, 1957, ISBN 978-0521091824), 150.</ref> In current usage, ''zakat'' is treated as a 2.5 percent levy on most valuables and savings held for a full [[Moon|lunar]] year, as long as the total value is more than a basic minimum known as ''[[nisab]]'' (three [[ounce]]s or 87.48 g of gold). As of August 31, 2007, ''nisab'' is approximately US$1825.00 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.<ref>[http://www.ramadhanzone.com/zakat_calculator.asp Zakat Calculator,] Ramahdan Zone. Retrieved August 31, 2007.</ref>
 ==Sawm==
-[[Image:Date-seller.jpg|220 px|right|thumb|Muslims traditionally break their fasts in Ramadan with [[Date palm|dates]] (like those offered by this date seller in [[Kuwait City]]), as was the practice ([[Sunnah]]) of Muhammad.]]
+[[Image:Date-seller.jpg|220 px|right|thumb|Muslims traditionally break their fasts in Ramadan with [[Date palm|dates]] (like those offered by this date seller in [[Kuwait City]]), as was the practice ([[Sunnah]]) of Muhammad]]
-Three types of fasting (''[[Sawm]]'') are recognized by the Qur'an: Ritual fasting,{{cite quran|2|183|end=187|expand=no}} fasting as compensation or repentance,{{cite quran|2|196|expand=no}} and ascetic fasting.{{cite quran|33|35|expand=no}}<ref>"Fasting", ''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an'' (2005)</ref>
+The fourth Pillar of Islam, ''sawm'' ("[[fasting]]") is divided into three types by the Qur'an: ritual fasting ([http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.183 2:183-187]), fasting as compensation or repentance ([http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.196 2:196]) and ascetic fasting ([http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/033.qmt.html#033.035 33:35]).
-Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of ''[[Ramadan]]''.<ref name="Caesar_1">Farah (1994), pp.144-145</ref> Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and [[sexual intercourse]] from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins.<ref name="Caesar_1"/> The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness to Allah, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, to atone for their past sins, and to remind them of the needy.<ref>Esposito (1998), p.90,91</ref> During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, harsh language, and gossip; in other words, they are expected to try to get along with each other better than normal. In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided.<ref>Tabatabaei (2002), p. 211,213</ref>
+Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of [[Ramadan]], when Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and [[human sexuality|sexual intercourse]] throughout the day. They are also expected to be especially mindful of other sins.<ref>Farah, 144-145.</ref> The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness to Allah, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, to atone for their past sins, and to remind themselves of their responsibilities to the needy.<ref>John Esposito, ''Islam: The Straight Path'', 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0195112344), 90-91.</ref> During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from [[violence]], anger, envy, greed, lust, harsh language, and gossip.<ref>Also, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. See Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn Tabatabaei, ''Islamic Teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam'', Translated by R. Campbell (New York: Mostazafan Foundation of New York, 2002, ISBN 0922817006), 211-213.</ref>
-[[Sawm of Ramadan|Fasting during Ramadan]] is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic. These include pre-pubescent children, those with a [[Disease|medical condition]] such as [[diabetes]], [[Old age|elderly people]], and [[pregnancy|pregnant]] or [[breastfeeding]] women. Observing fasts is not allowed for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those in combat and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. Missing fasts usually must be made up soon afterwards, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}</ref><ref>Khan (2006), p.54</ref><ref>"Islam", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005)</ref>
+Fasting during Ramadan is not obligatory to individuals in several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic. These include pre-pubescent children, those with a medical conditions such as [[diabetes]], elderly people, and menstruating, [[pregnancy|pregnant]] or [[breastfeeding]] women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those in combat and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. However, any fasting that was missed for a non-permanent reason is usually expected to be made up soon afterwards, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance:<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 “For whom fasting is mandatory,”] USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, University of Southern California. Retrieved August 31, 2007.</ref>
+<blockquote>O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint, (Fasting) for a fixed number of days; but if any of you is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed number (Should be made up) from days later. For those who can do it (With hardship), is a ransom, the feeding of one that is indigent. ([[Qur'an]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.183 2:183-184])</blockquote>
 =='''Hajj'''==
-[[Image:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|left|220 px|thumb|The ''[[hajj]]'' to the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] is an important practice in Islam.]]
+The ''[[Hajj]]'' ("greater pilgrimage")<ref>Glassé, 358.</ref> is a the religiously mandated journey to the city of [[Mecca]], which occurs annually during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]. The rite serves two symbolic purposes, representing events from [[Abraham]]'s life and also celebrating various episodes from the life of [[Muhammad]].<ref>Glassé, 359.</ref>John L. Esposito (ed.), [http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t125.e771"Hajj,"] ''Oxford Dictionary of Islam'' (Oxford University Press, 2003, Oxford Reference Online). Subscription required. Retrieved May 24, 2007]</ref>
-The ''[[Hajj]]'' is a pilgrimage that occurs during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] in the city of [[Mecca]]. Every [[able-bodied]] Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.<ref name="Caesar_2">Farah (1994), pp.145-147</ref> When the pilgrim is around ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in ''[[Ihram]]'' clothing, which consists of two white sheets.<ref name="Britannica_India">Hoiberg (2000), pp.237-238</ref> Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]], touching the [[Black Stone]], running seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Marwah]], and symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]] in [[Mina, Saudi Arabia|Mina]], among others.<ref name="Britannica_India"/>
+Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.<ref>Farah, 145-147.</ref>
-The [[pilgrim]], or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community. For some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to Allah, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement.<ref>Goldschmidt (2005), p.48</ref>
+While the ''hajj'' includes many diverse ritual elements (from prayers, to throwing stones at pillars, to circumambulating the Kaaba), the overarching unity of these rituals is to create an atmosphere of sacred time. Thus, the ritual can be seen as a definitive example of a [[rite of passage]], designed to transform the attitudes and world-views of those who perform it:
-<br clear="all">
+<blockquote>Few Muslims are unchanged by their experience of the Hajj: on their return to their homes and their normal lives, the religious element of life remains in the foreground, more real than the visible realities of normal life. Forever after, a photograph of the Kabaa reminds the former pilgrim of the intensity of the experience of Hajj, rather as a photograph of a small child warms the heart of its grandparent.<ref>Sedgwick, 80.</ref></blockquote>
-==Notes==
+==Footnotes==
-<references/>
+<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
+{{reflist}}
+</div>
 ==References==
-'''Books and journals'''
+'''Books and Journals'''
-*{{cite book | last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan | coauthors=Tamara Sonn, Jacob Neusner | title=Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415216737}}
+* Brockopp, Jonathan, Tamara Sonn and Jacob Neusner. ''Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook''. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0415216737
-*{{cite book | last=Esposito  | first=John  | authorlink=John Esposito  | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | id=ISBN 978-0195112344}}
+* Delcambre, Anne-Marie. ''Inside Islam'', 3rd ed. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 2005. ISBN 1423733460
-*{{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | id=ISBN 978-0812018530}}
+* Denny, Frederick Mathewson. ''An Introduction to Islam''. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994. ISBN 0023285206
-*{{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | id=ISBN 978-0813342757}}
+* Esposito, John. ''Islam: The Straight Path'', 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0195112344
-*{{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-1553698425}}
+* Farah, Caesar. ''Islam: Beliefs and Observances'', 5th ed. Barron's Educational Series, 1994. ISBN 978-0812018530
-*{{cite book | last=Hoiberg | first=Dale | authorlink=Dale Hoiberg | coauthors=Indu Ramchandani | title=Students' Britannica India | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica (UK) Ltd | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-0852297605}}
+* Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr., and Lawrence Davidson. ''A Concise History of the Middle East'', 8th ed. Westview Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0813342757
-*{{cite book | last=Jonsson | first=David J. | title=Islamic Economics And the Final Jihad | year=2006| publisher=Xulon Press | id=ISBN 1597819808}}
+* Hedáyetullah, Muhammad. ''Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition''. Oxford: Trafford Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1553698425
-*{{cite book | last=Khan | first=Arshad | title=Islam 101: Principles and Practice | publisher=Khan Consulting and Publishing, LLC | year=2006 | id=ISBN 78-0977283835}}
+* Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar. ''Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People''. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2004. ISBN 978-0313324727
-*{{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0313324727}}
+* Levy, Reuben. ''The Social Structure of Islam''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957. ISBN 978-0521091824
-*{{cite book | last=Levy | first=Reuben | title=The Social Structure of Islam | location = UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1957 | id=ISBN 978-0521091824}}
+* Reinhart, A. Kevin. "Impurity / No Danger." ''History of Religions'' 30 (Aug. 1990): 1-26.
-*{{cite book | last=Ridgeon | first=Lloyd | title=Major World Religions | publisher=RoutledgeCurzon | year=2003 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 978-0415297967}}
+* Rippin, Andrew. ''Muslims: Vol. 2, The Contemporary Period: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices''. London: Taylor & Francis, 2003. ISBN 978-0203396537
-*{{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-922817-00-6}}
+* Ridgeon, Lloyd. ''Major World Religions'', 1st ed. RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. ISBN 978-0415297967
+* Ruthven, Malise. ''Islam : A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0585111219
-'''Encyclopedias'''
+* Sedgwick, Mark J. ''Islam & Muslims: A Guide to Diverse Experience in a Modern World''. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2006. ISBN 1931930163
+* Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn and R. Campbell (trans.). ''Islamic Teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam''. New York: Mostazafan Foundation of New York, 2002. ISBN 0922817006
-*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online|Encyclopaedia Britannica Online]] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica | year=2007 | id=ISBN 978-1593392932}}
-*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001| edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}}
-*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
-*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}}
-*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia Britannica | publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
-==See also==
+'''Dictionaries and Encyclopedias'''
-* [[Ten Commandments]]
+* Bearman, P. J., T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs (eds.). ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''. Brill Academic Publishers.
+* Esposito, John L. ''Oxford Dictionary of Islam''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195125584
+* Fahlbusch, Erwin and William Geoffrey Bromiley (eds.) ''Encyclopedia of Christianity''. Eerdmans Publishing Company/Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0802824145
+* Frank, Salamone. ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 978-0415941808
+* Glassé, Cyril. ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam''. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0759101892
 [[Category: Philosophy and religion]]