Difference between revisions of "Pesticide" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m (Unlink unwanted links)
(12 intermediate revisions by 5 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Claimed}}
+
{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
 
[[Image:Cropduster spraying pesticides.jpg|right|frame|A [[cropduster]] spreading pesticide.]]
 
[[Image:Cropduster spraying pesticides.jpg|right|frame|A [[cropduster]] spreading pesticide.]]
 
{{farming}}
 
{{farming}}
  
The U.S. [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] ([[EPA]]) defines a '''pesticide''' as "any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or lessening the damage of any [[pest (organism)|pest]]".<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/index.htm What is a Pesticide?] (US EPA definitions) retrieved [[June 24]], [[2006]]</ref>
+
The U.S. [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] ([[EPA]]) defines a '''pesticide''' as "any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or lessening the damage of any [[pest (organism)|pest]]".<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/index.htm What is a Pesticide?]. (US EPA definitions). Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
 
A pesticide may be a [[chemical]] substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against [[pest (animal)|pest]]s including [[insect]]s, plant [[pathogen]]s, weeds, [[mollusk]]s, [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[fish]], nematodes ([[roundworm]]s) and [[microbe]]s that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a [[vector (biology)|vector]] for disease or are a nuisance. Many pesticides are [[poison]]ous to humans.
 
A pesticide may be a [[chemical]] substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against [[pest (animal)|pest]]s including [[insect]]s, plant [[pathogen]]s, weeds, [[mollusk]]s, [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[fish]], nematodes ([[roundworm]]s) and [[microbe]]s that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a [[vector (biology)|vector]] for disease or are a nuisance. Many pesticides are [[poison]]ous to humans.
Line 24: Line 24:
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
Since before [[2500 BC]], humans have used pesticides to prevent damage to their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental [[sulfur]] dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the [[15th century]], toxic chemicals such as [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[lead]] were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the [[17th century]], [[nicotine]] [[sulfate]] was extracted from [[tobacco]] leaves for use as an insecticide. The [[19th century]] saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, [[pyrethrum]] which is derived from [[chrysanthemum]]s, and [[rotenone]] which is derived from the roots of tropical [[vegetables]].<ref>Miller, G. Tyler Jr. (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref>
+
Since before 2500 B.C.E., humans have used pesticides to prevent damage to their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental [[sulfur]] dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[lead]] were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, [[nicotine]] [[sulfate]] was extracted from [[tobacco]] leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, [[pyrethrum]] which is derived from [[chrysanthemum]]s, and [[rotenone]] which is derived from the roots of tropical [[vegetables]].<ref>G. Tyler Miller, Jr. 2002. ''Living in the Environment.'' Stamford, CT: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0534997287.</ref>
  
In [[1939]], [[Paul Hermann Müller|Paul Müller]] discovered that [[DDT]] was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world. However, in the [[1960s]], it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing which was a huge threat to [[biodiversity]]. [[Rachel Carson]] wrote the best-selling book ''[[Silent Spring]]'' about [[biological magnification]]. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent [[malaria]] and other tropical diseases by killing [[mosquitoes]] and other disease-carrying insects.<ref> Lobe, J., [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0916-05.htm "WHO urges DDT for Malaria Control Strategies,"] Sept 16, 2006, Inter Press Service, cited from Commondreams.org</ref>
+
In 1939, [[Paul Hermann Müller|Paul Müller]] discovered that [[DDT]] was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world. However, in the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing which was a huge threat to [[biodiversity]]. [[Rachel Carson]] wrote the best-selling book ''[[Silent Spring]]'' about [[biological magnification]]. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent [[malaria]] and other tropical diseases by killing [[mosquitoes]] and other disease-carrying insects.<ref>J.  Lobe, 2006. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0916-05.htm "WHO urges DDT for Malaria Control Strategies."] Inter Press Service, cited from Commondreams.org. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since [[1950]], and 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are now used each year.<ref>Miller, G. Tyler Jr. (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref>
+
Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950, and 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are now used each year.<ref>Miller</ref>
  
 
==Regulation==
 
==Regulation==
In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. For example, in the [[United States]], the [[EPA]] does so.  Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is effective against the intended pest and safe to use. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a [[Toxicity Class]]. Intentional [[pesticide misuse]] is illegal worldwide.<ref>[http://www.icj-cij.org/homepage/index.php?p1=0]</ref>
+
In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. For example, in the [[United States]], the [[EPA]] does so.  Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is effective against the intended pest and safe to use. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a [[Toxicity Class]]. Intentional [[pesticide misuse]] is illegal worldwide.<ref>[http://www.icj-cij.org/homepage/index.php?p1=0 International Court of Justice.] Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
 
[[Image:Hazardous-pesticide.jpg|thumb|left|Preparing for pesticide application.]]
 
[[Image:Hazardous-pesticide.jpg|thumb|left|Preparing for pesticide application.]]
Line 37: Line 37:
 
Some pesticides are considered too [[hazard]]ous for sale to the general public and are designated [[restricted use pesticides]]. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.
 
Some pesticides are considered too [[hazard]]ous for sale to the general public and are designated [[restricted use pesticides]]. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.
  
"Read and follow label directions" is a phrase often quoted by extension agents, garden columnists and others teaching about pesticides. This is not merely good advice; it is the law, at least in the U.S. Similar laws exist in limited parts of the rest of the world.  The [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]] of 1972 (FIFRA) set up the current system of pesticide regulations. It was amended somewhat by the [[Food Quality Protection Act of 1996]]. Its purpose is to make pesticide manufacture, distribution and use as safe as possible. The most important points for users to understand are these: it is a violation to apply any pesticide in a manner not in accordance with the label for that pesticide, and it is a [[crime]] to do so intentionally.<ref>[http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dshm/pesticid/pm3.pdf]</ref>
+
"Read and follow label directions" is a phrase often quoted by extension agents, garden columnists and others teaching about pesticides. This is not merely good advice; it is the law, at least in the U.S. Similar laws exist in limited parts of the rest of the world.  The [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]] of 1972 (FIFRA) set up the current system of pesticide regulations. It was amended somewhat by the [[Food Quality Protection Act of 1996]]. Its purpose is to make pesticide manufacture, distribution and use as safe as possible. The most important points for users to understand are these: it is a violation to apply any pesticide in a manner not in accordance with the label for that pesticide, and it is a [[crime]] to do so intentionally.<ref>[http://www.dec.ny.gov/ NYS Department of Environmental Conservation]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
 
==Effects of pesticide use==
 
==Effects of pesticide use==
 
{{Pollution}}
 
{{Pollution}}
 
===On the environment===
 
===On the environment===
Pesticides have been found to pollute virtually every lake, river and stream in the [[United States]], according to the [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1291/ US Geological Survey]. Pesticide [[surface runoff|runoff]] has been found to be highly lethal to amphibians, according to a recent study by the [http://www.pitt.edu/~relyea/Roundup.html University of Pittsburgh]. Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a [[hydrology transport model]] to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide [[surface runoff|runoff]] was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.<ref>C.M Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw, Harry Seidman et al. ''[[Computer model]]ing of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds'', [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by [[ESL Inc.]], Sunnyvale, California (1973)</ref> Pesticides are strongly implicated in [[pollinator decline]], including through the mechanism of [[Colony Collapse Disorder]].<ref name = Hackenberg>
+
Pesticides have been found to pollute virtually every lake, river and stream in the [[United States]], according to the [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1291/ US Geological Survey]. Pesticide [[surface runoff|runoff]] has been found to be highly lethal to amphibians, according to a recent study by the [http://www.pitt.edu/~relyea/Roundup.html University of Pittsburgh]. Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a [[hydrology transport model]] to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.<ref>C.M. Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw, Harry Seidman et al. 1973. ''Computer modeling of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds.'' (Sunnyvale, CA: ESL Inc.)</ref> Pesticides are strongly implicated in [[pollinator decline]], including through the mechanism of [[Colony Collapse Disorder]].<ref>David Hackenberg, 2007. [http://www.imkerinnen.at/Hauptseite/Menues/News/Brief%20David%20Hackenberg%20307%20engl.doc Letter from David Hackenberg to American growers from March 14, 2007]. (Plattform Imkerinnen—Austria.) Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref><ref>Matt Wells. 2007. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm Vanishing bees threaten US crops]. BBC News. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
{{cite web
+
<ref>[http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/german_bee_monitoring.htm Betrayed and sold out–German bee monitoring- Walter Haefeker, Deutscher Berufs- und Erwerbsimkerbund]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.beekeeping.com/artikel/imidacloprid_1.htm Schadet Imidacloprid den Bienen - von Eric Zeissloff]. (German) Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  |author=David Hackenberg
 
  |url=http://www.imkerinnen.at/Hauptseite/Menues/News/Brief%20David%20Hackenberg%20307%20engl.doc
 
  |title="Letter from David Hackenberg to American growers from March 14, 2007"
 
  |publisher=Plattform Imkerinnen — Austria
 
  |accessdate=2007-03-27
 
  |date=2007-03-14
 
  |language=English
 
}}</ref><ref>
 
{{cite news
 
  | author = Matt Wells  
 
  | title = Vanishing bees threaten US crops
 
  | work = www.bbc.co.uk
 
  | publisher = ''[[BBC News]]''
 
  | date = 2007-03-11
 
  | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm  
 
  | accessdate = 2007-03-12
 
  | language = English
 
}}</ref>
 
<ref>
 
{{cite web
 
  |url=http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/german_bee_monitoring.htm  
 
  |title=Betrayed and sold out–German bee monitoring- Walter Haefeker, Deutscher Berufs- und Erwerbsimkerbund  
 
  |accessdate=2007-04-26
 
  |date=2000-08-12
 
  |language=English
 
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 
|url=http://www.beekeeping.com/artikel/imidacloprid_1.htm
 
|title=Schadet Imidacloprid den Bienen - von Eric Zeissloff
 
|accessdate=2007-04-26
 
|date=2001
 
|language=German
 
}}</ref>
 
  
[[Nitrogen fixation]], which is required for the growth of [[higher plant]]s, is hindered by pesticides in soil. The insecticides [[DDT]], [[methyl parathion]], and especially [[pentachlorophenol]] have been shown to interfere with [[legume]]-[[rhizobium]] [[chemical signal]]ing. [[Root nodule]] formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen [[fertiliser]] every year.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Fox, J.E., J. Gulledge, E. Engelhaupt, M.E. Burrow & J.A. McLachlan | title=Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants | journal=[[PNAS|Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.]] | year=2007 | volume=104 | pages=10282-7}}</ref>
+
[[Nitrogen fixation]], which is required for the growth of [[higher plant]]s, is hindered by pesticides in soil. The insecticides [[DDT]], [[methyl parathion]], and especially [[pentachlorophenol]] have been shown to interfere with [[legume]]-[[rhizobium]] [[chemical signal]]ing. [[Root nodule]] formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen [[fertiliser]] every year.<ref>J.E. Fox, J. Gulledge, E. Engelhaupt, M.E. Burrow & J.A. McLachlan. 2007. Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. ''PNAS''. 104:10282-7.</ref>
  
The use of pesticides also decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using them results in higher soil quality<ref>{{cite journal | author=Johnston, A. E. | title=Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops | journal=Soil Use Management | year=1986 | volume=2 | pages=97-105}}</ref> with the additional effect that more life in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in [[drought]] years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lotter, D. W., Seidel, R. & Liebhardt, W. | title=The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year | journal=American Journal of Alternative Agriculture | year=2003 | volume=18 | pages=146-154}}</ref>
+
The use of pesticides also decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using them results in higher soil quality<ref>A. E. Johnston, 1986. Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops. ''Soil Use Management'' 2:97-105.</ref> with the additional effect that more life in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in [[drought]] years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts.<ref>D. W. Lotter, R. Seidel & W. Liebhardt. 2003. The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year. ''American Journal of Alternative Agriculture'' 18:146-154.</ref>
  
 
===On farmers===
 
===On farmers===
 
There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure.
 
There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure.
<ref>{{cite journal | author= Linda A. McCauley, et.al. | title=[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/8526/8526.html Studying Health Outcomes in Farmworker Populations Exposed to Pesticides] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2006 | volume=114 | pages=}}</ref>
+
<ref>Linda McCauley et al. 2006. [http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/8526/8526.html Studying Health Outcomes in Farmworker Populations Exposed to Pesticides]. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 114.</ref>
  
Research in Bangladesh suggests that many farmers do not need to apply pesticide to their rice fields, but continue to do so only because the pesticide is paid for by the government. [http://radio.oneworld.net/mediamanage/view/5717?PrintableVersion=enabled]
+
Research in Bangladesh suggests that many farmers do not need to apply pesticide to their rice fields, but continue to do so only because the pesticide is paid for by the government.<ref>[http://radio.oneworld.net/mediamanage/view/5717?PrintableVersion=enabled Agriculture, Development] Oneworld Radio. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
[[Organophosphate]] pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.<ref>Jaga K, Dharmani C. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Pan Am J Public Health 14(3):171–185.</ref> These are associated with acute health problems such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.<ref>Ecobichon DJ. 1996. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds). 5th ed. New York:MacMillan, 643–689.</ref> Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,<ref>Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Mellen BG. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health 9(3):221–32.</ref><ref>O'Malley MA. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. Occupational Medicine 12:327–345.</ref> cancer,<ref>Daniels JL, Olshan AF, Savitz DA. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environmental Health Perspectives 105: 1068–1077.</ref> depression, neurologic deficits,<ref>{{cite journal | author=Kamel F, et.al. | title=[http://dir.niehs.nih.gov/direb/studies/fwhs/pubs.htm Neurobehavioral performance and work experience in Florida farmworkers] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2003 | volume=111 | pages=1765-1772}}</ref>
+
[[Organophosphate]] pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.<ref>Jaga K., C. Dharmani. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. ''Pan Am J Public Health'' 14(3): 171–185.</ref> These are associated with acute health problems such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.<ref>D.J. Ecobichon. 1996. "Toxic effects of pesticides." In: Casarett and Doull's ''Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons.'' (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds.) (New York, NY: MacMillan).</ref> Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,<ref>TA Arcury, SA Quandt, BG Mellen. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. ''Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health'' 9:3:221–232.</ref><ref>MA O'Malley. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. ''Occupational Medicine'' 12: 327–345.</ref> cancer,<ref>J.L. Daniels, A.F. Olshan, D.A. Savitz. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 105: 1068–1077.</ref> depression, neurologic deficits,<ref>F. Kamel et al. 2003. [http://dir.niehs.nih.gov/direb/studies/fwhs/pubs.htm Neurobehavioral performance and work experience in Florida farmworkers]. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 111: 1765-1772. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
<ref>Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longsteth WT, Checkoway H. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Archives of Neurology 62(1):91–95.</ref> miscarriages, and birth defects.
+
<ref>J.A. Firestone, T. Smith-Weller, G. Franklin, P. Swanson, W.T. Longsteth, H. Checkoway. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. ''Archives of Neurology'' 62(1): 91–95.</ref> miscarriages, and birth defects.
<ref>Engel LS, O'Meara ES, Schwartz SM. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 26(3): 193–198 </ref>
+
<ref>L.S. Engel, E.S. O'Meara, S.M. Schwartz. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. ''Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health'' 26(3): 193–198</ref>
<ref>Cordes DH, Rea DF. 1988. Health hazards of farming. American Family Physician 38:233–243 </ref>
+
<ref>D.H. Cordes, D.F. Rea. 1988. Health hazards of farming. ''American Family Physician'' 38:233–243.</ref>
<ref>Das R, Steege A, Baron S, Beckman J, Harrison R. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. Int J Occup Environ Health 7: 303–312 </ref>
+
<ref>R. Das, A. Steege, S. Baron, J. Beckman, R. Harrison. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. ''Int J Occup Environ Health'' 7:303–312.</ref>
<ref>Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environmental Health Perspectives 107 (suppl 3):409–419 </ref>
+
<ref>B. Eskenazi, A. Bradman, R. Castorina. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 107(3): 409–419.</ref>
<ref>Garcia AM. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 44(6):584–594.<br>
+
<ref>A.M. Garcia. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine'' 44(6): 584–594.</ref><ref>M. Moses. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. ''AAOHN'' 37: 115–130</ref>
Moses M. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. AAOHN 37:115–130 </ref>
+
<ref>D.A. Schwartz, L.A. Newsum, R.M. Heifetz. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. ''Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health'' 12:51–54.</ref>
<ref>Schwartz DA, Newsum LA, Heifetz RM. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 12:51–54 </ref>
+
<ref>L. Stallones, C. Beseler. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. ''Environ Res'' 90:89–97</ref>
<ref>Stallones L, Beseler C. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. Environ Res 90:89–97 </ref>
+
<ref>L.L. Strong, B. Thompson, G.D. Coronado, W.C. Griffith, E.M. Vigoren, I. Islas. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. ''Am J Ind Med'' 46:599–606.</ref> <ref>G. Van Maele-Fabry, J.L. Willems. 2003. [http://oem.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/60/9/634 Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis]. ''Occupational and Environmental Medicine'' 60(9): 634–642.</ref>
<ref>Strong, LL, Thompson B, Coronado GD, Griffith WC, Vigoren EM, Islas I. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 46:599–606 </ref>
+
Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers. <ref> M.C. Alavanja, J.A. Hoppin, F. Kamel. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. ''Annu Rev Public Health'' 25:155–197.</ref><ref>F. Kamel, J.A. Hoppin. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. ''Environ Health Perspect''. 112:950–958.</ref>
<ref>Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL. 2003. [http://oem.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/60/9/634 Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis]. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9): 634–642 </ref>
 
Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers. <ref>Alavanja MC, Hoppin JA, Kamel F. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health 25:155–197.</ref> <ref>Kamel F, Hoppin JA. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ Health Perspect 112:950–958.</ref>
 
  
 
===On consumers===
 
===On consumers===
A study published by the [[United States National Research Council]] in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.<ref>National Research Council. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309048753/html/ ''Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children'']. National Academies Press; 1993. ISBN 0-309-04875-3. Retrieved 10-Apr-2006.</ref> A recent study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with [[organic food]] (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of [[organophosphorus]] pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet <ref>{{cite journal | author=Lu, Chensheng, et al. | title=[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/8418/8418.pdf Organic Diets Significantly Lower Children’s Dietary Exposure to Organophosphorus Pesticides] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2006 | volume=114 | pages=260-263}}</ref>.
+
A study published by the [[United States National Research Council]] in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.<ref>National Research Council. 1993. ''Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children.'' (Washington, DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 0309048753).</ref> A recent study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with [[organic food]] (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of [[organophosphorus]] pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet <ref>Chensheng Lu, et al. 2006. [http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/8418/8418.pdf Organic Diets Significantly Lower Children’s Dietary Exposure to Organophosphorus Pesticides]. ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 114:260-263. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>.
  
 
==Pesticide residues in food==
 
==Pesticide residues in food==
  
The [http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/ Pesticide Data Program], a program started by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1990, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:
+
The [http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/ Pesticide Data Program], a program started by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1990, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:
*{{cite paper
+
* Pesticide Data Program. 2006. [http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Summary2005.pdf Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005. USDA. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  | author = Pesticide Data Program
 
  | title = Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005
 
  | version =
 
  | publisher = USDA
 
  | date = Feb 2006
 
  | url = http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Summary2005.pdf
 
  | format = pdf
 
  | accessdate =2006-07-24  }}
 
  
 
For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:
 
For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" align="center"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" align="center"
!  Fresh Fruit and<br> Vegetables !! Number of <br>Samples Analyzed !! Samples with<br> Residues Detected !! Percent of <br>Samples with<br> Detections !! Different <br>Pesticides<br> Detected !! Different <br>Residues <br>Detected !! Total Residue<br> Detections
+
!  Fresh Fruit and<br/> Vegetables !! Number of <br/>Samples Analyzed !! Samples with<br/> Residues Detected !! Percent of <br/>Samples with<br/> Detections !! Different <br/>Pesticides<br/> Detected !! Different <br/>Residues <br/>Detected !! Total Residue<br/> Detections
 
|-align="center"
 
|-align="center"
 
! Apples
 
! Apples
Line 136: Line 94:
 
:''These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent''
 
:''These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent''
 
:''compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent''
 
:''compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent''
:''contained more than 1 pesticide.'' - page 34.
+
:''contained more than 1 pesticide.'' .
  
The [[Environmental Working Group]] used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] and the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.<ref>[http://www.foodnews.org/fulldataset.php]</ref>
+
The [[Environmental Working Group]] used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] and the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.<ref>[http://www.foodnews.org/fulldataset.php Test Results: Complete Data Set]. Environmental Working Group. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
 
==Dangers of pesticides==<!-- This section is linked from [[Natural selection]] —>
 
==Dangers of pesticides==<!-- This section is linked from [[Natural selection]] —>
 
[[Image:Atrazine_use_map_1997.png|thumb|376px|[[Atrazine]] use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used pesticides in the United States. (From [http://ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/pesticide_use_maps/ USGS Pesticide Use Maps])]]
 
[[Image:Atrazine_use_map_1997.png|thumb|376px|[[Atrazine]] use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used pesticides in the United States. (From [http://ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/pesticide_use_maps/ USGS Pesticide Use Maps])]]
Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm Pesticides: Health and Safety]</ref>. There is concern that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to the consumer. These concerns are one reason for the [[organic food]] movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain [[pesticide residue]]s after being washed or peeled (see [[Pesticide#Pesticide residues in food|Pesticide residues in food]], above). Residues, permitted by US government safety standards, are limited to tolerance levels that are considered safe, based on average daily consumption of these foods by adults and children (as opposed to an [[upper bound]]).  
+
Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm Pesticides: Health and Safety]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>. There is concern that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to the consumer. These concerns are one reason for the [[organic food]] movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain [[pesticide residue]]s after being washed or peeled (see [[Pesticide#Pesticide residues in food|Pesticide residues in food]], above). Residues, permitted by US government safety standards, are limited to tolerance levels that are considered safe, based on average daily consumption of these foods by adults and children (as opposed to an [[upper bound]]).  
  
Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modelling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is no information on possible [[synergistic]] effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water <ref> Rabideau, Christine L. [http://es.epa.gov/ncer/fellow/progress/99/rabideauch00.html Multiple Pesticide Exposure: Immunotoxicty And Oxidative Stress] 2001</ref>.  
+
Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modelling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is no information on possible [[synergistic]] effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water <ref>Christine L. Rabideau, 2001. [http://es.epa.gov/ncer/fellow/progress/99/rabideauch00.html Multiple Pesticide Exposure: Immunotoxicty And Oxidative Stress]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>.  
  
The remaining exposure routes, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/spraydrift.htm Spray Drift of Pesticides]Dec 1999 </ref>. Risk of exposure to pesticide applicators, or other workers in the field after pesticide application, may also be significant and is regulated as part of the pesticide registration process.
+
The remaining exposure routes, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/spraydrift.htm Spray Drift of Pesticides]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>. Risk of exposure to pesticide applicators, or other workers in the field after pesticide application, may also be significant and is regulated as part of the pesticide registration process.
  
Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects <ref> Noyes, Katherine  [http://www.charityguide.org/volunteer/fifteen/pesticides.htm BANISH PESTICIDES FROM YOUR GARDEN]</ref> of pesticides. A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]<ref>[http://www.nrdc.org/health/kids/farm/chap1.asp HEALTH HAZARDS OF PESTICIDES] Natural Resources Defense Council Oct 1998</ref>.
+
Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects <ref>Katherine  Noyes, [http://www.charityguide.org/volunteer/fifteen/pesticides.htm BANISH PESTICIDES FROM YOUR GARDEN]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> of pesticides. A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]<ref>[http://www.nrdc.org/health/kids/farm/chap1.asp HEALTH HAZARDS OF PESTICIDES] Natural Resources Defense Council, Oct 1998. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>.
  
Peer-reviewed studies now suggest neurotoxic effects on developing animals from [[organophosphate]] pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, smaller birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. The [[EPA]] finished a 10 year review of the [[organophosphate]] pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. <ref> Melissa Lee Phillips
+
Peer-reviewed studies now suggest neurotoxic effects on developing animals from [[organophosphate]] pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, smaller birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. The [[EPA]] finished a ten year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. <ref>Melissa Lee Phillips. 2006. [http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-10/spheres.html Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children?] ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 114(10): A592–A595.</ref>
[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-10/spheres.html Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children?] Environmental Health Perspectives 2006 October; 114(10): A592–A595.</ref>
 
  
Besides human health risks, pesticides also pose dangers to the environment <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm  DDT Ban Takes Effect EPA press release - December 31, 1972]</ref> . Non-target organisms can be severely impacted. In some cases, where a pest insect has some controls from a [[beneficial insect|beneficial]] [[predator]] or [[parasite]], an insecticide application can kill both pest and beneficial populations. The beneficial organism almost always takes longer to recover than the pest. A study comparing [[biological pest control]] and use of [[pyrethroid]] insecticide for diamondback moths, a major [[cabbage]] family insect pest, showed that the insecticide application created a rebounded pest population due to loss of insect [[predator]]s, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect. <ref>  
+
Besides human health risks, pesticides also pose dangers to the environment <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm  DDT Ban Takes Effect EPA press release - December 31, 1972]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> Non-target organisms can be severely impacted. In some cases, where a pest insect has some controls from a [[beneficial insect|beneficial]] [[predator]] or [[parasite]], an insecticide application can kill both pest and beneficial populations. The beneficial organism almost always takes longer to recover than the pest. A study comparing [[biological pest control]] and use of [[pyrethroid]] insecticide for diamondback moths, a major [[cabbage]] family insect pest, showed that the insecticide application created a rebounded pest population due to loss of insect predators, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect. <ref>A.E.
Muckenfuss, A. E.; Shepard, B. M.; Ferrer, E. R. [http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/90dbm/90DBM02.pdf Natural Mortality of Diamondback Moth in Coastal South Carolina] [[Clemson University]], Coastal Research and Education Center </ref> Likewise, pesticides sprayed in an effort to control adult [[mosquito]]es, may temporarily depress mosquito populations, however they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging the natural controlling factors <ref>[http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html Pesticides In the Environment]</ref>.
+
Muckenfuss; B.M. Shepard; E.R. Ferrer. [http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/90dbm/90DBM02.pdf Natural Mortality of Diamondback Moth in Coastal South Carolina]. Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> Likewise, pesticides sprayed in an effort to control adult [[mosquito]]es, may temporarily depress mosquito populations, however they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging the natural controlling factors <ref>[http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html Pesticides In the Environment]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>.
  
 
Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to [[biota]], and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their [[Biodiversity Action Plans]]. Misuse of pesticides can also cause [[pollinator decline]], which can adversely affect food crops.
 
Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to [[biota]], and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their [[Biodiversity Action Plans]]. Misuse of pesticides can also cause [[pollinator decline]], which can adversely affect food crops.
  
An early discovery relating to pesticide use, is that pests may eventually [[Evolution|evolve]] to become resistant to chemicals. When sprayed with pesticides, many pests will initially be very susceptible. However, not all pests are killed, and some with slight variations in their genetic make-up are resistant and therefore survive. Through [[natural selection]], the pests may eventually become very resistant to the pesticide. Farmers may resort to increased use of pesticides, exacerbating the problem <ref>Marten, Gerry [http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/indepth/indiapest.html “Non-Pesticide Management” For Escaping The Pesticide Trap In Andrah Padesh, India</ref>.  
+
An early discovery relating to pesticide use, is that pests may eventually [[Evolution|evolve]] to become resistant to chemicals. When sprayed with pesticides, many pests will initially be very susceptible. However, not all pests are killed, and some with slight variations in their genetic make-up are resistant and therefore survive. Through [[natural selection]], the pests may eventually become very resistant to the pesticide. Farmers may resort to increased use of pesticides, exacerbating the problem <ref>Gerry Marten, [http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/indepth/indiapest.html “Non-Pesticide Management” For Escaping The Pesticide Trap In Andrah Padesh, India.] Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>.  
  
‘'[[Persistent Organic Pollutant]]s’' (POPs) are one of the lesser-known environmental issues raised as a result of using pesticides. POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans <ref>[http://0-www.cdc.gov.mill1.sjlibrary.org/nceh/indicators/pesticides.htm]</ref> by disruption in the [[endocrine system]], [[cancer]], [[infertility]] and [[Mutagenesis|mutagenic effects]], although very little is currently known about these ‘chronic effects’. Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent [[soil contaminant]]s, whose impact may endure for decades, and adversely affect [[soil conservation]] <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/er/hazsubs/sources.htm Sources of Common Contaminants and Their Health Effects] [[USEPA]]</ref>.
+
‘'[[Persistent Organic Pollutant]]s’' (POPs) are one of the lesser-known environmental issues raised as a result of using pesticides. POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans <ref>[http://0-www.cdc.gov.mill1.sjlibrary.org/nceh/indicators/pesticides.htm EPHI Project]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> by disruption in the [[endocrine system]], [[cancer]], [[infertility]] and [[Mutagenesis|mutagenic effects]], although very little is currently known about these ‘chronic effects’. Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent [[soil contaminant]]s, whose impact may endure for decades, and adversely affect [[soil conservation]] <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/er/hazsubs/sources.htm Sources of Common Contaminants and Their Health Effects]. USEPA. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>.
  
A new study conducted by the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9408-pesticide-exposure-raises-risk-of-parkinsons.html Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s]<br>{{cite journal | author=Alberto Ascherio, Honglei Chen, Marc G. Weisskopf, Eilis O'Reilly, Marjorie L. McCullough, Eugenia E. Calle, Michael A. Schwarzschild, Michael J. Thun | title=[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112660877/ABSTRACT Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson's disease] | journal=Annals of Neurology | year=2006 | volume= | pages=}}</ref>
+
A new study conducted by the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] in Boston, has discovered a 70 percent increase in the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides.<ref>Roxanne Khamsi [http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9408-pesticide-exposure-raises-risk-of-parkinsons.html Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s] ''New Scientist''  June 26, 2006, Retrieved January 11, 2008.</ref><ref>Alberto Ascherio, Honglei Chen, Marc G. Weisskopf, Eilis O'Reilly, Marjorie L. McCullough, Eugenia E. Calle, Michael A. Schwarzschild, Michael J. Thun. 2006. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112660877/ABSTRACT Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson's disease]. ''Annals of Neurology''.</ref>
  
 
==Benefits of pesticides==
 
==Benefits of pesticides==
Some uncontrolled pests can cause serious consequences; a person bitten by [[mosquitoes]] that carry disease like [[west nile virus]] and [[malaria]] may die. A child stung by [[bee]]s, [[wasp]]s or [[ant]]s may suffer an allergic reaction. Animals infected by [[parasites]] or [[flea]]s may suffer severe illness. [[Mold]]y food or diseased produce may cause sickness. Roadside trees and brush may block visibility and cause accidents. Invasive [[weeds]] in parks and wilderness areas may cause environmental damage. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage [[rodents]] and insects associated with food and grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to an acceptable level and increases quality of life, protects property, and promotes a better environment.<ref>[http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/PPP/PPP-70.pdf]</ref>
+
 
 +
Some uncontrolled pests can cause serious consequences; a person bitten by [[mosquitoes]] that carry disease like [[West Nile virus]] and [[malaria]] may die. A child stung by [[bee]]s, [[wasp]]s or [[ant]]s may suffer an allergic reaction. Animals infected by [[parasites]] or [[flea]]s may suffer severe illness. [[Mold]]y food or diseased produce may cause sickness. Roadside trees and brush may block visibility and cause accidents. Invasive [[weeds]] in parks and wilderness areas may cause environmental damage. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage [[rodents]] and insects associated with food and grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to an acceptable level and increases quality of life, protects property, and promotes a better environment.<ref>[http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/PPP/PPP-70.pdf The Benefits of Pesticides, A Story Worth Telling.] Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
 
==Managing pest resistance==<!-- This section is linked from [[Demographic transition]] —>
 
==Managing pest resistance==<!-- This section is linked from [[Demographic transition]] —>
Line 179: Line 137:
 
Pesticides are often very cost-effective for farmers. Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and replacing high risk pesticides is the ultimate solution to reducing risks placed on our society from pesticide use. For over 30 years, there has been a trend in the United States and in many other parts of the world to use pesticides in combination with alternative pest controls. This use of [[integrated pest management]] (IPM) is now commonplace in US agriculture. With pesticide regulations that now put a higher priority on reducing the risks of pesticides in the food supply and emphasize environmental protection, old pesticides are being phased out in favor of new reduced risk pesticides. Many of these reduced risk pesticides include biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives. As a result, older, more hazardous, pesticides are being phased out and replaced with pest controls that reduce these health and environmental risks. Chemical engineers continually develop new pesticides to produce enhancements over previous generations of products. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides. This process is on-going and is not an immediate solution to the risks of pesticide use.
 
Pesticides are often very cost-effective for farmers. Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and replacing high risk pesticides is the ultimate solution to reducing risks placed on our society from pesticide use. For over 30 years, there has been a trend in the United States and in many other parts of the world to use pesticides in combination with alternative pest controls. This use of [[integrated pest management]] (IPM) is now commonplace in US agriculture. With pesticide regulations that now put a higher priority on reducing the risks of pesticides in the food supply and emphasize environmental protection, old pesticides are being phased out in favor of new reduced risk pesticides. Many of these reduced risk pesticides include biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives. As a result, older, more hazardous, pesticides are being phased out and replaced with pest controls that reduce these health and environmental risks. Chemical engineers continually develop new pesticides to produce enhancements over previous generations of products. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides. This process is on-going and is not an immediate solution to the risks of pesticide use.
  
In [[2006]], the [[World Health Organization]] suggested the resumption of the limited use of [[DDT]] to fight [[malaria]]. They called for the use of DDT to coat the inside walls of houses in areas where [[mosquitoes]] are prevalent. [[Dr. Arata Kochi]], WHO's malaria chief, said ,"One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT."
+
In 2006, the [[World Health Organization]] suggested the resumption of the limited use of [[DDT]] to fight [[malaria]]. They called for the use of DDT to coat the inside walls of houses in areas where [[mosquitoes]] are prevalent. [[Dr. Arata Kochi]], WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT."
  
 
==Pesticide use maps in the US==
 
==Pesticide use maps in the US==
Line 207: Line 165:
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
+
<references/>
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
Line 213: Line 171:
 
===Books===
 
===Books===
  
*{{cite book | author=Greene, Stanley A.; Pohanish, Richard P. (editors) | title=Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals | publisher=SciTech Publishing, Inc | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-8155-1516-2}}
+
* Greene, Stanley A., and Richard P. Pohanish, eds. 2005. ''Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals.'' SciTech Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0815515162.
*{{cite book | author=Hamilton, Denis; Crossley, Stephen (editors) | title=Pesticide residues in food and drinking water | publisher=J. Wiley | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-471-48991-3}}
+
* Hamilton, Denis, and Stephen Crossley, eds. 2004. ''Pesticide residues in food and drinking water.'' J. Wiley. ISBN 0471489913.
*{{cite book | author=Hond, Frank et.al. | title=Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives | publisher=Blackwell Science | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-632-05659-2}}
+
* Hond, Frank, et al. 2003. ''Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives.'' Blackwell Science. ISBN 0632056592.
*{{cite book | author=Kegley, Susan E.; Wise, Laura J. | title=Pesticides in fruits and vegetables | publisher=University Science Books | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-935702-46-6}}
+
* Kegley, Susan E., and Laura J. Wise. 1998. ''Pesticides in fruits and vegetables.'' University Science Books. ISBN 0935702466.
* Miller, G. Tyler Jr. (2002). ''Living in the Environment'' (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-37697-5
+
* Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 2002. ''Living in the Environment,'' 12th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0534376975.
*{{cite book | author=Watson, David H. (editor) | title=Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food | publisher=Woodhead Publishing | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-85573-734-5}}
+
* Watson, David H., ed. 2004. ''Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food.'' Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 1855737345.
*{{cite book | author=Ware, George W.; Whitacre, David M. | title=Pesticide Book | publisher=Meister Publishing Co | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-892829-11-8}}
+
* Ware, George W., and David M. Whitacre. 2004. ''Pesticide Book.'' Meister Publishing Co. ISBN 1892829118.
  
 
===Journal Articles===
 
===Journal Articles===
*{{cite journal | author=Walter A. Alarcon, et.al. | title=Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools | journal=Journal of the American Medical Association | year=July 2005 | volume=294 | pages=455–465}}
 
* Anderson DW, Hickey JJ, Risebrough RW, Hughes DF, Christensen RE. Significance of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 1969; 83:91–112.
 
  
===News===
+
* Walter A. Alarcon, et al. July 2005. Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools. ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' 294:455–465.
*{{cite news | last = Janofsky | first = Michael | title = E.P.A. Recommends Limits on Thousands of Uses of Pesticides | work =  | pages =  | publisher = New York Times | date = August 4, 2006 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/04/washington/04pest.html | accessdate = 2006-08-24 }}
+
* Anderson, D.W., J.J. Hickey, R.W. Risebrough, D.F. Hughes, and R.E. Christensen. 1969. Significance of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. ''The Canadian Field-Naturalist'' 83:91–112.
*{{cite news | last = Janofsky | first = Michael | title = Unions Say E.P.A. Bends to Political Pressure | work = | pages = | publisher = New York Times | date = 2006-08-02 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/02/washington/02pest.html | accessdate = 2006-08-24 }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Jocelyn Kaiser | title=Endocrine Disrupters Trigger Fertility Problems in Multiple Generations | journal=Science | year=June 2005 | volume=308 | pages=1391-1392}}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Jocelyn Kaiser | title=House Would Foil Human Pesticide Studies | journal=Science | year=May 2005 | volume=308 | pages=1234}}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Paul Webster | title=Study Finds Heavy Contamination Across Vast Russian Arctic | journal=Science | year=Dec 2004 | volume=306 | pages=1875}}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Erik Stokstad | title=EPA Criticized for Study of Child Pesticide Exposure | journal=Science | year=Nov 2004 | volume=306 | pages=961}}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Laura Helmuth | title=Pesticide Causes Parkinson's in Rats | journal=Science | year=Nov 2000 | volume=290 | pages=1068}}
 
*{{cite journal | author=David Adam | title=Pesticide use linked to Parkinson's disease | journal=Nature | year=Nov 2000 | volume=408 | pages=125}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
<<We need to remove unnecessary links here.>>
 
  
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/medical_notes/449303.stm] article on pesticides from the UK
+
*[http://npic.orst.edu National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC)] - Objective, science-based information about pesticide-related topics. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
*[http://npic.orst.edu National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC)] - Objective, science-based information about pesticide-related topics.
+
*[http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/pesticides/links.htm Center for Disease Control]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
*[http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/pesticides/links.htm Center for Disease Control - Pesticides]
+
* NIH encyclopedia pages with [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002832.htm general recommendations regarding risks due to Pesticides] and [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002430.htm emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* NIH encyclopedia pages with [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002832.htm general recommendations regarding risks due to Pesticides] and [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002430.htm emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure]
+
* [http://www.pesticide.org/ Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides] - Resource on pesticide hazards and alternatives. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.flora.org/healthyottawa/ Coalition for a Healthy Ottawa - Has municipal pesticide bylaw statistics for Canada and Fact Sheets]
+
* [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/ Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides] - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.pesticide.org/ Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides] - Resource on pesticide hazards and alternatives
+
* [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/forum National Pesticide Forum]- Annual grassroots conference on pesticide policy, science, regulation and activism. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/ Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides] - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides.
+
* [http://www.cdms.net/manuf/manuf.asp a list of [[EPA]] pesticide labels for pesticides by trade name]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/forum National Pesticide Forum]- Annual grassroots conference on pesticide policy, science, regulation and activism.
+
* [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/ Compendium of Pesticide Common Names] - Maintained by Alan Wood. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.cdms.net/manuf/manuf.asp a list of [[EPA]] pesticide labels for pesticides by trade name]
+
* [http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/ UK Pesticide Safety Directorate]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_bactericides.html Common bactericides]
+
* [http://www.sankey.ws/pen.html The Pesticide Education Network, Ottawa Canada]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_virucides.html Common virucides]
+
* [http://www.pan-uk.org/default.htm Pesticide Action Network UK] Aims to minimize pesticide use. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=pesticide&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding pesticides]
+
* [http://www.pesticideinfo.org Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/ Compendium of Pesticide Common Names] - Maintained by Alan Wood
+
* [http://www.croplifeamerica.org US trade association representing the crop protection and pest control industry]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/ UK Pesticide Safety Directorate]
+
*[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/viewtols.htm Pesticides and Food] - Pesticide Residue Limits in Food. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.durango-software.com Durango Software] - Provides risk assessment tools for pesticide use
+
*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Download.htm Pesticide Residues in Food] - Data and Summary reports from the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] on pesticide residues in food sold in the United States. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.ewg.org/reports/bodyburden2/execsumm.php The Pollution in Newborns] - From the Environmental Working Group
+
*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00017.pdf Pesticides: Use, Effects, and Alternatives to Pesticides in Schools] (pdf) from the United States General Accounting Office. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.sankey.ws/pen.html The Pesticide Education Network, Ottawa Canada]
+
*[http://alternatives2toxics.pointinspace.com:80/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=A2T_HerpDB&-loadframes Reptile Amphibian & Pesticide (RAP) Database]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
* [http://www.pan-uk.org/default.htm Pesticide Action Network UK] Aims to minimize pesticide use.
 
* [http://www.charityguide.org/volunteer/fifteen/pesticides.htm Banish Pesticides from Your Garden] Article on pesticide dangers and alternatives.
 
* [http://www.pesticideinfo.org Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form]
 
* [http://www.croplifeamerica.org US trade association representing the crop protection and pest control industry]
 
* [http://www.mdrgf.org A dossier on dangers of pesticides by the French NGO MDRGF. MDRGF is a partner NGO of PAN Europe]
 
*[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/viewtols.htm Pesticides and Food] - Pesticide Residue Limits in Food
 
*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Download.htm Pesticide Residues in Food] - Data and Summary reports from the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] on pesticide residues in food sold in the United States.
 
*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00017.pdf Pesticides: Use, Effects, and Alternatives to Pesticides in Schools] (pdf) from the United States General Accounting Office
 
*[http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/2006/EPA-Pesticides-Pandering26may06.htm#1 Letter to EPA Administrator Stephen Johnson] ([http://www.peer.org/docs/epa/06_25_5_union_ltr.pdf pdf]) - From Unions representing 9,000 scientists (May 24, 2006)
 
*Streaming online video about efforts to reduce pesticide use in rice in Bangladesh. Windows Media Player [http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.wmv], Real Player [http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.rm]
 
*[http://alternatives2toxics.pointinspace.com:80/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=A2T_HerpDB&-loadframes Reptile Amphibian & Pesticide (RAP) Database]
 
  
 
===Pesticide regulatory authorities===
 
===Pesticide regulatory authorities===
*[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ US EPA]
+
*[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ US EPA]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
*[http://www.pesticides.gov.uk UK Pesticides Safety Directorate]
+
*[http://www.pesticides.gov.uk UK Pesticides Safety Directorate]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/plant/protection/evaluation/index_en.htm European Commission pesticide information]
+
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/plant/protection/evaluation/index_en.htm European Commission pesticide information]. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]

Revision as of 04:32, 5 November 2008

A cropduster spreading pesticide.
Agriculture
Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg

General
Agribusiness · Agriculture
Agricultural science · Agronomy
Animal husbandry
Extensive farming
Factory farming · Free range
Green Revolution
History of agriculture
Industrial agriculture
Intensive farming · Organic farming
Permaculture
Sustainable agriculture
Urban agriculture

Particular
Aquaculture · Dairy farming
Grazing · Hydroponics · IMTA
Intensive pig farming · Lumber
Maize · Orchard
Poultry farming · Ranching · Rice
Sheep husbandry · Soybean
System of Rice Intensification
Wheat

Issues
Animal rights · Animal welfare
Antibiotics
Battery cage · Biosecurity · BSE
Crop rotation
Ethical consumerism
Environmental science
Foie gras
Foodborne illness
Foot-and-mouth disease
Genetically modified food
Gestation crate
Growth hormone
Pesticide
Veal crates
Water conservation
Weed control

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a pesticide as "any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or lessening the damage of any pest".[1]

A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against pests including insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or are a nuisance. Many pesticides are poisonous to humans.

Types of Pesticides

  • Bactericides for the control of bacteria
  • Fungicides for the control of fungi and oomycetes
  • Herbicides for the control of weeds
  • Insecticides for the control of insects - these can be Ovicides, Larvicides or Adulticides
  • Miticides for the control of mites
  • Molluscicides for the control of slugs and snails
  • Nematicides for the control of nematodes
  • Rodenticides for the control of rodents
  • Virucides for the control of viruses

Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or biological pesticides, although the distinction can sometimes blur.

A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. This movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers may kill needed pollinaters.

History

Since before 2500 B.C.E., humans have used pesticides to prevent damage to their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables.[2]

In 1939, Paul Müller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world. However, in the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing which was a huge threat to biodiversity. Rachel Carson wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent malaria and other tropical diseases by killing mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects.[3]

Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950, and 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are now used each year.[4]

Regulation

In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. For example, in the United States, the EPA does so. Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is effective against the intended pest and safe to use. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class. Intentional pesticide misuse is illegal worldwide.[5]

Preparing for pesticide application.

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.

"Read and follow label directions" is a phrase often quoted by extension agents, garden columnists and others teaching about pesticides. This is not merely good advice; it is the law, at least in the U.S. Similar laws exist in limited parts of the rest of the world. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1972 (FIFRA) set up the current system of pesticide regulations. It was amended somewhat by the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Its purpose is to make pesticide manufacture, distribution and use as safe as possible. The most important points for users to understand are these: it is a violation to apply any pesticide in a manner not in accordance with the label for that pesticide, and it is a crime to do so intentionally.[6]

Effects of pesticide use

 Pollution
Air pollution
Acid rain • Air Pollution Index • Air Quality Index • Atmospheric dispersion modeling • Chlorofluorocarbon • Global dimming • Global warming • Haze • Indoor air quality • Ozone depletion • Particulate • Smog • Roadway air dispersion
Water pollution
Eutrophication • Hypoxia • Marine pollution • Ocean acidification • Oil spill • Ship pollution • Surface runoff • Thermal pollution • Wastewater • Waterborne diseases • Water quality • Water stagnation
Soil contamination
Bioremediation • HerbicidePesticide •Soil Guideline Values (SGVs)
Radioactive contamination
Actinides in the environment • Environmental radioactivity • Fission product • Nuclear fallout • Plutonium in the environment • Radiation poisoning • radium in the environment • Uranium in the environment
Other types of pollution
Invasive species • Light pollution • Noise pollution • Radio spectrum pollution • Visual pollution
Government acts
Clean Air Act • Clean Water Act • Kyoto Protocol • Water Pollution Control Act • Environmental Protection Act 1990
Major organizations
DEFRA • Environmental Protection Agency • Global Atmosphere Watch • Greenpeace • National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Related topics
Natural environment

On the environment

Pesticides have been found to pollute virtually every lake, river and stream in the United States, according to the US Geological Survey. Pesticide runoff has been found to be highly lethal to amphibians, according to a recent study by the University of Pittsburgh. Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.[7] Pesticides are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder.[8][9] [10][11]

Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Root nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen fertiliser every year.[12]

The use of pesticides also decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using them results in higher soil quality[13] with the additional effect that more life in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts.[14]

On farmers

There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure. [15]

Research in Bangladesh suggests that many farmers do not need to apply pesticide to their rice fields, but continue to do so only because the pesticide is paid for by the government.[16] Organophosphate pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.[17] These are associated with acute health problems such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.[18] Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,[19][20] cancer,[21] depression, neurologic deficits,[22] [23] miscarriages, and birth defects. [24] [25] [26] [27] [28][29] [30] [31] [32] [33] Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers. [34][35]

On consumers

A study published by the United States National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.[36] A recent study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with organic food (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet [37].

Pesticide residues in food

The Pesticide Data Program, a program started by the United States Department of Agriculture is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1990, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005:

For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data:

Fresh Fruit and
Vegetables
Number of
Samples Analyzed
Samples with
Residues Detected
Percent of
Samples with
Detections
Different
Pesticides
Detected
Different
Residues
Detected
Total Residue
Detections
Apples 774 727 98 33 41 2,619
Lettuce 743 657 88 47 57 1,985
Pears 741 643 87 31 35 1,309
Orange Juice 186 93 50 3 3 94

They were also able to test for multiple pesticides within a single sample and found that:

These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent
compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent
contained more than 1 pesticide. .

The Environmental Working Group used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the USDA and the U.S. FDA between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.[38]

Dangers of pesticides

File:Atrazine use map 1997.png
Atrazine use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used pesticides in the United States. (From USGS Pesticide Use Maps)

Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use [39]. There is concern that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to the consumer. These concerns are one reason for the organic food movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being washed or peeled (see Pesticide residues in food, above). Residues, permitted by US government safety standards, are limited to tolerance levels that are considered safe, based on average daily consumption of these foods by adults and children (as opposed to an upper bound).

Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modelling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is no information on possible synergistic effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water [40].

The remaining exposure routes, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public [41]. Risk of exposure to pesticide applicators, or other workers in the field after pesticide application, may also be significant and is regulated as part of the pesticide registration process.

Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects [42] of pesticides. A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council[43].

Peer-reviewed studies now suggest neurotoxic effects on developing animals from organophosphate pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, smaller birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. The EPA finished a ten year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. [44]

Besides human health risks, pesticides also pose dangers to the environment [45] Non-target organisms can be severely impacted. In some cases, where a pest insect has some controls from a beneficial predator or parasite, an insecticide application can kill both pest and beneficial populations. The beneficial organism almost always takes longer to recover than the pest. A study comparing biological pest control and use of pyrethroid insecticide for diamondback moths, a major cabbage family insect pest, showed that the insecticide application created a rebounded pest population due to loss of insect predators, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect. [46] Likewise, pesticides sprayed in an effort to control adult mosquitoes, may temporarily depress mosquito populations, however they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging the natural controlling factors [47].

Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to biota, and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their Biodiversity Action Plans. Misuse of pesticides can also cause pollinator decline, which can adversely affect food crops.

An early discovery relating to pesticide use, is that pests may eventually evolve to become resistant to chemicals. When sprayed with pesticides, many pests will initially be very susceptible. However, not all pests are killed, and some with slight variations in their genetic make-up are resistant and therefore survive. Through natural selection, the pests may eventually become very resistant to the pesticide. Farmers may resort to increased use of pesticides, exacerbating the problem [48].

‘'Persistent Organic Pollutants’' (POPs) are one of the lesser-known environmental issues raised as a result of using pesticides. POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans [49] by disruption in the endocrine system, cancer, infertility and mutagenic effects, although very little is currently known about these ‘chronic effects’. Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades, and adversely affect soil conservation [50].

A new study conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, has discovered a 70 percent increase in the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides.[51][52]

Benefits of pesticides

Some uncontrolled pests can cause serious consequences; a person bitten by mosquitoes that carry disease like West Nile virus and malaria may die. A child stung by bees, wasps or ants may suffer an allergic reaction. Animals infected by parasites or fleas may suffer severe illness. Moldy food or diseased produce may cause sickness. Roadside trees and brush may block visibility and cause accidents. Invasive weeds in parks and wilderness areas may cause environmental damage. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects associated with food and grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to an acceptable level and increases quality of life, protects property, and promotes a better environment.[53]

Managing pest resistance

Pest resistance to a pesticide is commonly managed through pesticide rotation.

Rotation involves alternating among pesticide classes with different modes of action to delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance. Different pesticide classes may be active on different pest sites of action. The U.S. Environmental Agency (EPA or USEPA) designates different classes of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides. Pesticide manufacturers may, on product labeling, require that no more than a specified number of consecutive applications of a pesticide class be made before alternating to a different pesticide class. This manufacturer requirement is intended to extend the useful life of a product.

Tankmixing pesticides is the combination of two or more pesticides with different modes of action. This practice may improve individual pesticide application results in addition to the benefit of delaying the onset of or mitigating existing pest resistance.

Continuing development of pesticides

Pesticides are often very cost-effective for farmers. Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and replacing high risk pesticides is the ultimate solution to reducing risks placed on our society from pesticide use. For over 30 years, there has been a trend in the United States and in many other parts of the world to use pesticides in combination with alternative pest controls. This use of integrated pest management (IPM) is now commonplace in US agriculture. With pesticide regulations that now put a higher priority on reducing the risks of pesticides in the food supply and emphasize environmental protection, old pesticides are being phased out in favor of new reduced risk pesticides. Many of these reduced risk pesticides include biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives. As a result, older, more hazardous, pesticides are being phased out and replaced with pest controls that reduce these health and environmental risks. Chemical engineers continually develop new pesticides to produce enhancements over previous generations of products. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides. This process is on-going and is not an immediate solution to the risks of pesticide use.

In 2006, the World Health Organization suggested the resumption of the limited use of DDT to fight malaria. They called for the use of DDT to coat the inside walls of houses in areas where mosquitoes are prevalent. Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT."

Pesticide use maps in the US

The US Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program published a 1997 Pesticide Use Maps which shows estimates of pesticide type and intensity of pesticide use by business of mass food production.

See also

  • Agrichemicals
  • Daminozide or Alar
  • DDT
  • Endangered arthropod
  • Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
  • Integrated Pest Management
  • List of environmental health hazards
  • Non-pesticide management
  • Nonpoint source pollution
  • Organophosphate
  • Pesticide misuse
  • Pesticide poisoning
  • Pesticide toxicity to bees
  • Protectant
  • Soil contamination
  • Temik
  • The Pesticide Question: Environment, Economics and Ethics (book)
  • Transgenic maize Bt corn
  • Water pollution

Notes

  1. What is a Pesticide?. (US EPA definitions). Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  2. G. Tyler Miller, Jr. 2002. Living in the Environment. Stamford, CT: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0534997287.
  3. J. Lobe, 2006. "WHO urges DDT for Malaria Control Strategies." Inter Press Service, cited from Commondreams.org. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  4. Miller
  5. International Court of Justice. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  6. NYS Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  7. C.M. Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw, Harry Seidman et al. 1973. Computer modeling of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds. (Sunnyvale, CA: ESL Inc.)
  8. David Hackenberg, 2007. Letter from David Hackenberg to American growers from March 14, 2007. (Plattform Imkerinnen—Austria.) Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  9. Matt Wells. 2007. Vanishing bees threaten US crops. BBC News. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  10. Betrayed and sold out–German bee monitoring- Walter Haefeker, Deutscher Berufs- und Erwerbsimkerbund. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  11. Schadet Imidacloprid den Bienen - von Eric Zeissloff. (German) Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  12. J.E. Fox, J. Gulledge, E. Engelhaupt, M.E. Burrow & J.A. McLachlan. 2007. Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. PNAS. 104:10282-7.
  13. A. E. Johnston, 1986. Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops. Soil Use Management 2:97-105.
  14. D. W. Lotter, R. Seidel & W. Liebhardt. 2003. The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 18:146-154.
  15. Linda McCauley et al. 2006. Studying Health Outcomes in Farmworker Populations Exposed to Pesticides. Environmental Health Perspectives 114.
  16. Agriculture, Development Oneworld Radio. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  17. Jaga K., C. Dharmani. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Pan Am J Public Health 14(3): 171–185.
  18. D.J. Ecobichon. 1996. "Toxic effects of pesticides." In: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds.) (New York, NY: MacMillan).
  19. TA Arcury, SA Quandt, BG Mellen. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health 9:3:221–232.
  20. MA O'Malley. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. Occupational Medicine 12: 327–345.
  21. J.L. Daniels, A.F. Olshan, D.A. Savitz. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environmental Health Perspectives 105: 1068–1077.
  22. F. Kamel et al. 2003. Neurobehavioral performance and work experience in Florida farmworkers. Environmental Health Perspectives 111: 1765-1772. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  23. J.A. Firestone, T. Smith-Weller, G. Franklin, P. Swanson, W.T. Longsteth, H. Checkoway. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Archives of Neurology 62(1): 91–95.
  24. L.S. Engel, E.S. O'Meara, S.M. Schwartz. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 26(3): 193–198
  25. D.H. Cordes, D.F. Rea. 1988. Health hazards of farming. American Family Physician 38:233–243.
  26. R. Das, A. Steege, S. Baron, J. Beckman, R. Harrison. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. Int J Occup Environ Health 7:303–312.
  27. B. Eskenazi, A. Bradman, R. Castorina. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environmental Health Perspectives 107(3): 409–419.
  28. A.M. Garcia. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 44(6): 584–594.
  29. M. Moses. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. AAOHN 37: 115–130
  30. D.A. Schwartz, L.A. Newsum, R.M. Heifetz. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 12:51–54.
  31. L. Stallones, C. Beseler. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. Environ Res 90:89–97
  32. L.L. Strong, B. Thompson, G.D. Coronado, W.C. Griffith, E.M. Vigoren, I. Islas. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 46:599–606.
  33. G. Van Maele-Fabry, J.L. Willems. 2003. Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9): 634–642.
  34. M.C. Alavanja, J.A. Hoppin, F. Kamel. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health 25:155–197.
  35. F. Kamel, J.A. Hoppin. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ Health Perspect. 112:950–958.
  36. National Research Council. 1993. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. (Washington, DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 0309048753).
  37. Chensheng Lu, et al. 2006. Organic Diets Significantly Lower Children’s Dietary Exposure to Organophosphorus Pesticides. Environmental Health Perspectives 114:260-263. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  38. Test Results: Complete Data Set. Environmental Working Group. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  39. Pesticides: Health and Safety. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  40. Christine L. Rabideau, 2001. Multiple Pesticide Exposure: Immunotoxicty And Oxidative Stress. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  41. Spray Drift of Pesticides. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  42. Katherine Noyes, BANISH PESTICIDES FROM YOUR GARDEN. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  43. HEALTH HAZARDS OF PESTICIDES Natural Resources Defense Council, Oct 1998. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  44. Melissa Lee Phillips. 2006. Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children? Environmental Health Perspectives 114(10): A592–A595.
  45. DDT Ban Takes Effect EPA press release - December 31, 1972. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  46. A.E. Muckenfuss; B.M. Shepard; E.R. Ferrer. Natural Mortality of Diamondback Moth in Coastal South Carolina. Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  47. Pesticides In the Environment. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  48. Gerry Marten, “Non-Pesticide Management” For Escaping The Pesticide Trap In Andrah Padesh, India. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  49. EPHI Project. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  50. Sources of Common Contaminants and Their Health Effects. USEPA. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  51. Roxanne Khamsi Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s New Scientist June 26, 2006, Retrieved January 11, 2008.
  52. Alberto Ascherio, Honglei Chen, Marc G. Weisskopf, Eilis O'Reilly, Marjorie L. McCullough, Eugenia E. Calle, Michael A. Schwarzschild, Michael J. Thun. 2006. Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson's disease. Annals of Neurology.
  53. The Benefits of Pesticides, A Story Worth Telling. Retrieved September 6, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Books

  • Greene, Stanley A., and Richard P. Pohanish, eds. 2005. Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals. SciTech Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0815515162.
  • Hamilton, Denis, and Stephen Crossley, eds. 2004. Pesticide residues in food and drinking water. J. Wiley. ISBN 0471489913.
  • Hond, Frank, et al. 2003. Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives. Blackwell Science. ISBN 0632056592.
  • Kegley, Susan E., and Laura J. Wise. 1998. Pesticides in fruits and vegetables. University Science Books. ISBN 0935702466.
  • Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 2002. Living in the Environment, 12th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0534376975.
  • Watson, David H., ed. 2004. Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 1855737345.
  • Ware, George W., and David M. Whitacre. 2004. Pesticide Book. Meister Publishing Co. ISBN 1892829118.

Journal Articles

  • Walter A. Alarcon, et al. July 2005. Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools. Journal of the American Medical Association 294:455–465.
  • Anderson, D.W., J.J. Hickey, R.W. Risebrough, D.F. Hughes, and R.E. Christensen. 1969. Significance of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 83:91–112.

External links

Pesticide regulatory authorities

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.