Difference between revisions of "Parenting" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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===Providing [[Morality|Moral]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] development===
 
===Providing [[Morality|Moral]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] development===
Most parents educate their children within their own religious faith or spiritual traditions.  Every child is sacred and contains what Geoge Washington called "the spark of celestial fire called conscience. <ref>George Washington, ''Rules of Civility in Conversation Among Men'', in The Book of Virtues, edited by William J. Bennet, (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1993, pg. 18 ISBN 978-0684835778)</ref> Obedience to parents can only be founded upon trust in parents, won by their unflagging devotion to the child's best interests. As a result gratitude,empathy and a high ethical standard will later develop.
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Most parents educate their children within their own religious faith or spiritual traditions.  Every child is sacred and contains what Geoge Washington called "the spark of celestial fire called conscience. <ref>George Washington, ''Rules of Civility in Conversation Among Men'', in The Book of Virtues, edited by William J. Bennet, (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1993, pg. 18 ISBN 978-0684835778)</ref> Obedience to parents can only be founded upon trust in parents, won by their unflagging devotion to the child's best interests. As a result, gratitude, empathy and a high ethical standard will later develop. Dr. Ross Campbell proclaims that in order for a child to be able to accept her parents' standards, she must feel geuninely loved and accepted by them. Parents must make sure that a child feels unconditionally loved. <ref>Ross Campbell, M.D, ''How to Really Love Your Child'', (Victor Books, 1977 ISBN 978-0781439121)</ref>
  
 
**[[Ethics]] and [[value systems]]
 
**[[Ethics]] and [[value systems]]

Revision as of 23:56, 22 June 2007


Parents with child Statue, Hrobákova street, Petržalka, Bratislava

Parenting is the process of raising and educating a child from birth until adulthood. This is usually done in a child's family by the mother and/or father (i.e., the biological parents). Where parents are unable or unwilling to provide this care, it is usually taken on by close relatives, such as older siblings, aunts and uncles, or grandparents. In other cases, children may be cared for by adoptive parents, foster parents, godparents, or in institutions (such as group homes or orphanages). The relationships in the family form the basis of how children will perceive themselves and the greater world. M. Scott Peck says that the experience of one's home life tends to shape a child's vision of the world and the pattern of future relationships. The parents' role in a child's healthy development cannot be overstated.

The word "parenting"

The word parenting has recently appeared and has become very popular due to the necessity to clarify the process of upbringing a child at home by parents as distinctly different from the formal education of a child's teacher-student relationshipat school. Therefore a parent's methods of educating a child must be different than a teacher's. At school teachers give a child general literacy and scientific knowledge; at home parents give a child general wisdom of life as parents themselves understand it.

The term "parenting" is a derivative of the word "parent" taken as a verb. When people say "to parent" a child it means "to be a parent," or "to fulfill parental duties." Since everyone who has a child has to parent he or she has their own view on what their parental duties are. Generally, the majority of parents admit that those duties are to provide for the basic needs of a child - the child's need for security and development. This implies security and development of a child's body, mind and soul. In other words, it is physical, intellectual, and emotional and spiritual security and development.

Parenting is usually done in a child's family by the mother and/or father (i.e., the biological parents). When parents are unable or unwilling to provide this care, it is usually undertaken by close relatives, such as older siblings, aunts and uncles, or grandparents. In other cases, children may be cared for by adoptive parents, foster parents, godparents, or in institutions (such as group homes or orphanages). There are also circumstances, such as on a kibbutz, where parenting is an occupation even when biological parents exist. Parens patriae refers to the public policy power of the state to usurp the rights of the natural parent, legal guardian or informal caregiver, and to act as the parent of any child or individual who is in need of protection (i.e. if the child's caregiver is exceedingly violent or dangerous).

Aspects of Parenting

Providing physical security

Providing physical security refers to a safety of a child's life.

  • To provide physical safety: shelter, clothes, nourishment
  • To protect a child from dangers; physical care
  • To care for a child's health and well-being

Providing physical development

Developing a child physically refers to providing a conditions to a healthy growth of a child.

  • To provide a child with the means to develop physically
  • To train the body of a child, to introduce to sport
  • To develop habits of health
  • Physical games

Providing intellectual security

Intellectual security refers to the conditions, in which a child's mind can develop. If the child's dignity is safe, that is nobody encroaches upon a child physically or verbally, then he is able to learn.

  • To provide an atmosphere of peace and justice in family, where no one's dignity is encroached upon.
  • To provide "no-fear," "no-threat,"no-verbal abuse" environment

Providing intellectual development

Intellectual development means providing opportunity to a child to learn - to learn about laws of nature and moral laws.

  • Reading, writing, calculating etc.
  • Intellectual games

Providing Moral and spiritual development

Most parents educate their children within their own religious faith or spiritual traditions. Every child is sacred and contains what Geoge Washington called "the spark of celestial fire called conscience. [1] Obedience to parents can only be founded upon trust in parents, won by their unflagging devotion to the child's best interests. As a result, gratitude, empathy and a high ethical standard will later develop. Dr. Ross Campbell proclaims that in order for a child to be able to accept her parents' standards, she must feel geuninely loved and accepted by them. Parents must make sure that a child feels unconditionally loved. [2]

    • Ethics and value systems
    • Norms and contributions to the child's belief and cultural customs.

Providing emotional security

To provide emotional security to a child means to secure his or her soul. It is to provide a safe loving environment, give a child a sense of being loved, being needed, welcomed.

  • To give a child a sense of being loved through:
    • Emotional support, encouragement
    • Attachment, caressing, hugging, touch, etc.

Providing emotional development

Emotional development includes nurturing and loving one's child as well as giving a child an opportunity to love other people, to care for and serve others. The ability to love is a quality of developed soul. A child doesn't grow selfish if he or she knows what a joy it is to love another person. The family is the school of love, the place for a child to develop character and form the pattern for future relationships. [3]*Provide opportunities for play and social activity.

  • Developing in a child an ability to love through:
    • Showing empathy and compassion to younger and older, weaker and sicker, etc.
    • Caring of others, helping grandparents, etc.
    • Teaching a child to organize parties for other people,play with younger siblings, etc.
    • Social skills and etiquette

Other parental duties

  • Financial support: Money provided as child support by custodial or non-custodial parent(s), or the state
  • Insurance coverage and payments for education

Parents

Mother

Faces of mother and child; detail of sculpture at Soldier Field, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
Female mallard duck and ducklings.


A mother is the natural or social female parent of an offspring.

In the case of a mammal such as a human, the mother gestates her child (called first an embryo, then a fetus) in the womb from conception until the fetus is sufficiently well-developed to be born. The mother then goes into labour and gives birth. Once the child is born, the mother produces milk, a process called lactation, to feed the child.

It is standard practice in industrialized countries that a mother receive prenatal or ante-natal care[4] during her pregnancy to assist her in several arising issues.

Mothers typically have a very important role in raising children, and the title mother can be given to a woman other than a biological parent who fills this role. This is most commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated wife of a child's father). The term mother can also refer to a person with stereotypical traits of a mother such as nurturing and other-centredness.

Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are:

  • mum or mummy, usual in the UK, Australia, and parts of Canada;
  • mom or mommy, in North America (especially the U.S.), and in the Midland areas of England; especially the Black Country.
  • mam or mammy, in parts of North Wales, the South Wales valleys , Ireland, Northern England and The Netherlands;
  • mama and ma, in parts of Latin America and other Spanish-speaking cultures

In many European languages, similar pronunciations apply; maman in French, mamma in Italian, or mama in Russian. In many south Asian cultures, the mother is known as amma or oma or ammi, or variations thereof. The "M" sound seems to be near universal to the word mother in many different languages; this is thought to be related to one of the first sounds an infant learns to control, the smacking of its lips together as it comes off the breast. (See breastfeeding.) Many times these terms denote affection or a maternal role in a child's life.

In some societies, single motherhood, the state of being an unmarried mother, is treated as a serious social issue.

Father

Father with child

A Father is traditionally the male parent of a child. Like mothers, fathers may be categorised according to their biological, social or legal relationship with the child. Historically, the biological relationship paternity has been determinative of fatherhood. However, proof of paternity has been intrinsically problematic and so social rules often determined who would be regarded as a father e.g. the husband of the mother.

This method of the determination of fatherhood has persisted since Roman times in the famous sentence: Mater semper certa; pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant (Mother is always certain; the father is whom the marriage shows). The historical approach has been destabilised with the recent emergence of accurate scientific testing, particularly DNA testing. As a result, the law on fatherhood is undergoing rapid changes. In the United States, the Uniform Parentage Act essentially defines a father as a man who conceives a child through sexual intercourse.

The most familiar English terms for father include dad, daddy, papa, pop and pa. Other colloquial expressions include my old man.

Categories

File:My Father.jpg
Rice farmer with daughter. Kantharalak, Thailand. (January 2005).
  • Natural father - the most common category: child product of man and woman
  • Birth father - the biological father of a child who, due to adoption or parental separation, does not raise the child
  • Step-father - wife/partner has child from previous relationship
  • Posthumous father - father died before children were born (or even conceived in the case of artificial insemination)
  • Non-parental father - unmarried father whose name does not appear on child's birth certificate: does not have legal responsibility but continues to have financial responsibility (UK)
  • Sperm donor father - a genetic connection but man does not have legal or financial responsibility if conducted through licensed clinics

Parents in World Scripture

Viktor Vasnetsov, Fatherhood

Many of the world scriptures describe the Ultimate Being, the Creator of the World, as a parent. The Jewish and Christian scriptures call God our Heavenly Father; in the Lotus Sutra the Buddha is called Father of the World; and similar statements are found in the Vedas and the Confucian classics. In many religious traditions Ultimate Reality is also recognized to be our divine Mother. Often God's Fatherhood and Motherhood are identified with Heaven and Earth, which cooperate in the creation and nurturing of humankind and the universe. Often, sacred scriptures describe God's love in terms that can be said to encompass both fatherly love—Creator, Teacher, Guide, and Savior—and motherly love—Nurturer, Fount of compassion, and Sustainer. Here are some examples World Scriptures: Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name.

Christianity. Bible, Matthew 6.9

God! Give us wisdom as a father gives to his sons. Guide us, O Much-invoked, in this path. May we live in light.

Hinduism. Rig Veda 7.32.26

I tell you, Shariputra, I, too, am like this, Being the Most Venerable among many saints, The Father of the World.... I tell you, Shariputra, You men Are all my children, And I am your Father. For age upon age, you Have been scorched by multitudinous woes, And I have saved you all.

Buddhism. Lotus Sutra 3

You are the children of the Lord your God.

Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Deuteronomy 14.1


Anas and 'Abdullah reported God's Messenger as saying, "All [human] creatures are God's children, and those dearest to God are those who treat His children kindly."

Islam. Hadith of Baihaqi

God Himself told me that the most basic and central truth of the universe is that God is the Father and we are His children. We are all created as children of God. And He said there is nothing closer, nothing deeper, nothing more ultimate than when father and son are one: One in love, one in life, and one in ideal.

Unification Church Sun Myung Moon, 10-20-73

Why did God create the universe? The reason is that God wants to realize the relationship of Father and children centering on love. So we can come to the conclusion that the foundation of the universe is the relationship of Father and children.

Unification Church. Sun Myung Moon, 6-20-82

We are the children of our Maker And do not fear that he will kill us. We are the children of God And do not fear that he will kill.

African Traditional Religions. Dinka Prayer (Sudan)

That breast of Thine which is inexhaustible, health-giving, by which Thou nursest all that is noble, containing treasure, bearing wealth, bestowed freely; lay that bare, Sarasvati [divine Mother], for our nurture.

Hinduism. Rig Veda 1.164.49

As one whom his mother comforts, so will I comfort you; You shall be comforted in Jerusalem.

Judaism and Christianity. Bible, Isaiah 66.13

The Valley Spirit never dies. It is named the Mysterious Female. And the Doorway of the Mysterious Female Is the base from which sprang Heaven and Earth. It is there within us all the while; Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry.

Taoism. Tao Te Ching 6

O Mother of Imupa, advocate for the whole [feminine] world! What a remarkable Mother I have! O Mother, a pillar, a refuge! O Mother, to whom all prostrate in greeting Before one enters her habitation! I am justly proud of my Mother. O Mother who arrives, Who arrives majestic and offers water to all!

African Traditional Religions. Yoruba Prayer (Nigeria)

I am Father and Mother of the world.

Hinduism. Bhagavad Gita 9.17

Thou art Father, Mother, Friend, Brother. With Thee as succorer in all places, what fear have I?

Sikhism. Adi Granth, Majh M.5, p. 103

Love, the divine Principle, is the Father and Mother of the universe, including man.

Christian Science. Science and Health, p. 256

For God, people of the whole world are all My children. All of you equally must understand that I am your Parent.

Tenrikyo. Ofudesaki IV.79

All ye under the heaven! Regard heaven as your father, earth as your mother, and all things as your brothers and sisters.

Shinto. Oracle of the Kami of Atsuta

Mother Earth have pity on us and give us food to eat! Father, the Sun, bless all our children and may our paths be straight!

Native American Religions. Blackfoot Prayer

Parenting methods and practices

Parenting typically utilizes rewards, praise, and discipline or punishment as tools of behavioral control. Most child development experts now agree that corporal punishment is not an effective behavior modification tool, and many parents have adopted non-physical approaches to child discipline. In some jurisdictions, corporal punishment (e.g., spanking or whipping) has been prohibited by law.

"Attachment parenting" seeks to create strong emotional bonds and avoids physical punishment, with discipline being accomplished through interactions recognizing a child's emotional needs. The term "child training" implies a specific type of parenting that focuses on holistic understanding of the child. The "Taking Children Seriously" philosophy sees both praise and punishment as manipulative and harmful to children and advocates other methods to reach agreement with them.

  • Discipline:
    • Time-out
    • Parental supervision

Nurturant parent model

The nurturant parent model envisions a family model where children are expected to explore their surroundings with protection from their parents. This model believes that children inherently know what they need and should be allowed to explore. The parents are responsible for protecting their child during this exploration, including protecting their child from themselves by offering guidance. A child will be picked up if the child cries because the parent wants the child to feel safe and nurtured. If a child grows up believing that its needs will be met, it will be more confident when facing challenges.

The nurturant parent model is discussed by George Lakoff in his books, including Moral Politics and Whose Freedom?. In these books, the nurturant parent model is contrasted with the strict father model. Lakoff argues that if the metaphor of nation as family and government as parent is used, then progressive politics correspond to the nurturant parent model. For example, progressives want the government to make sure that the citizens are protected and assisted to achieve their potential. This might take the form of tough environmental regulations or healthcare assistance.

Strict father model

The strict father model of parenting is one which places strong value on discipline as a means to survive and thrive in a harsh world.

Ideas involved in this model include:

  • That children learn through reward and punishment, as in operant conditioning.
  • That children become more self-reliant and more self-disciplined by having strict parents.
  • That the parent, particularly the father, is meant to mete out rewards for good behavior as well as punish bad behavior.

So this model of child-rearing would involve allowing a child to cry themselves to sleep. Picking up a child when it should be sleeping might foster dependence on the parents and is not a display of discipline. In his book Dare to Discipline, James Dobson advocates the strict father model. However, researchers have linked authoritarian childrearing with children who withdraw, lack spontaneity, and have lesser evidence of conscience (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

The strict father model is discussed by George Lakoff in his books, including Moral Politics and Whose Freedom?. In these books, the strict father model is contrasted with the nurturant parent model. Lakoff argues that if the metaphor of nation as family and government as parent is used, then conservative politics correspond to the strict father model. For example, conservatives think that adults should not look to the government for assistance, lest they become dependent. Likewise, economically productive behavior should be rewarded by incentives such as tax cuts.

Attachment parenting

Attachment parenting, a phrase coined by pediatrician William Sears, is a parenting philosophy based on the principles of the attachment theory in developmental psychology. According to attachment theory, a strong emotional bond with parents during childhood, also known as a secure attachment, is a precursor of secure, empathic relationships in adulthood.

History

Attachment parenting describes a parenting approach inspired in part by attachment theory. Attachment theory, originally proposed by John Bowlby, states that the infant has a tendency to seek closeness to another person and feel secure when that person is present. In comparison, Sigmund Freud proposed that attachment was a consequence of the need to satisfy various drives. In attachment theory, children attach to their parents because they are social beings, not just because they need other people to satisfy drives and attachment is part of normal child development.

Developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth devised a procedure, called The Strange Situation, to observe attachment relationships between a human mother and child. She observed disruptions to the parent/child attachment over a 20 minute period, and noted that this affected the child's exploration and behavior toward the mother. This operationalization of attachment has recently come under question, as it may not be a valid measure for infants that do not experience distress upon initial encounter with a stranger (e.g., Clarke-Stewart, Goossens, & Allhusen, 2001).

According to Dr. Sears there are 8 ideals that foster healthy attachment between the caretaker and infant. However, none of these ideals stem directly from original attachment theory.

Dr. Sears' Eight Ideals of Attachment Parenting

Per Dr. Sears' theory of attachment parenting (AP), proponents attempt to foster a secure bond with their child by promoting eight "ideals," which are identified as goals for parents to strive for. These eight ideals are:

  1. Preparation for childbirth
  2. Emotional responsiveness
  3. Breastfeeding
  4. Babywearing
  5. Co-sleeping safely
  6. Avoiding frequent and prolonged separations between parents and a baby
  7. Positive discipline
  8. Maintaining balance in family life

These values are interpreted in a variety of ways across the movement. Many attachment parents also choose to live a natural family living (NFL) lifestyle, such as natural childbirth, home birth, stay-at-home parenting, homeschooling, unschooling, the anti-circumcision movement, the anti-vaccination movement, natural health, cooperative movements, and support of organic food.

However, Dr. Sears does not require a parent to strictly follow any set of rules, instead encouraging parents to be creative in responding to their child's needs. Attachment parenting, outside the guise of Dr. Sears, focuses on responses that support secure attachments.

Attachment Parenting and Childcare

Attachment parenting proponents value continuous attachment to a primary caregiver. However, many still engage childcare, regardless of whether a parent stays at home. AP-friendly childcare focuses on meeting the child's needs first, but without denying the working parent of their duties outside of the home.

Attachment Parenting and Discipline

Attachment parents seek to understand the biological and psychological needs of the children, and to avoid unrealistic expectations of child behavior. In setting boundaries and limits that are appropriate to the age of the child, attachment parenting takes into account the physical and psychological stage of development that the child is currently experiencing. In this way, parents may seek to avoid the frustration that occurs when they expect things their child is not capable of.

Attachment parenting holds that it is of vital importance to the survival of the child that he be capable of communicating his needs to the adults and having those needs promptly met. Dr. Sears advises that while still an infant, the child is mentally incapable of outright manipulation. Sears says that in the first year of life, a child's needs and wants are one and the same. Unmet needs are believed, by Dr. Sears and other AP proponents, to surface beginning immediately in attempts to fulfill that which was left unmet. AP looks at child development as well as infant and child biology to determine the psychologically and biologically appropriate response at different stages. Attachment parenting does not mean meeting a need that a child can fulfill himself. It means understanding what the needs are, when they arise, how they change over time and circumstances, and being flexible in devising ways to respond appropriately.

Similar practices are called natural parenting, instinctive parenting, intuitive parenting, immersion parenting or "continuum concept" parenting.

Criticisms of attachment parenting

One criticism of attachment parenting is that it can be very strenuous and demanding on parents. Without a support network of helpful friends or family, the work of parenting can be difficult. Writer Judith Warner contends that a “culture of total motherhood,” which she blames in part on attachment parenting, has lead to an “age of anxiety” for mothers in modern American society.[5] Sociologist Sharon Hays argues that the "ideology of intensive mothering" imposes unrealistic obligations and perpetuates a "double shift" life for working women. [6]

Another criticism is that there is no conclusive or convincing body of research, aside from testimonials from participating parents, that shows this labor-intensive approach to be in any way superior to what attachment parents term "mainstream parenting" in the long run.[7] Psychologist Jerome Kagan has criticised attachment parenting studies for neglecting the influence of innate temperament. He argues that personality factors such as shyness are partially inherited. A child in the “strange situation” may be securely attached to his mother but cry because he has a highly reactive temperament. [8]

The American Academy of Pediatrics has recently amended its policy statement regarding SIDS prevention, and has come out against sharing a bed with small babies (though it does encourage room-sharing).[9]

Response to criticisms

Attachment parenting adherents argue that the extra parenting effort is an investment in future ease, since the resulting strong relationship often makes future parenting simpler. Rather than being "strenuous," attachment parenting theory regards being available to one's children as natural and instinctive.

In response to the above-mentioned American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement recommending against co-sleeping, Attachment Parenting International (API) issued a response which alleged the data referenced in the statement was unreliable, and that co-sponsors of the campaign had created a conflict of interest. API's response also outlines calls for an "objective, comprehensive, and independent report which analyzes the relative risk of all types of sleeping environments. Only when that is available can the CPSC truly assist parents in making the best decisions for their family."


Parenting Across the Lifespan

See also: Pregnancy , antenatal care , Prenatal care , and Childcare

Pregnancy and prenatal parenting

During pregnancy the unborn child is affected by many decisions his or her parents make, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The health and diet decisions of the mother can have either a positive or negative impact on the child.

Many people believe that parenting begins with birth, but the mother begins raising and nurturing a child well before birth. Scientific evidence indicates that from the fifth month on, the unborn baby is able to hear sound, be aware of motion, and possibly exhibit short-term memory. Several studies (e.g. Kissilevsky et al., 2003) show evidence that the unborn baby can become familiar with his or her parents' voices. Other research indicates that by the seventh month, external schedule cues influence the unborn baby's sleep habits. Based on this evidence, parenting actually begins well before birth.

Infants

Being the parent of an infant is a major responsibility. Infants require a lot of care including (but not limited to) feeding, bathing, changing diapers, and health care.

Toddlers

Parenting a Toddler is a lot of work. Parenting responsibilities during the toddler years include (but are not limited to) feeding, bathing, potty training, ensuring their safety, teaching, and attending to their well being. Common parenting issues with toddlers:

  • Toilet training
  • bathing

Preschoolers

Parenting responsibilities for preschool age children often include (but are not limited to)feeding, bathing,teaching, ensuring their safety, and attending to their well being. Parents are expected to make decisions about preschool education. Issues related to parenting preschool age children:

Elementary and Middle School Years

Parenting responsibilities during the school years include (but are not limited to) feeding, assisting with education, ensuring their safety and wellness, and providing them with a loving and nurturing home environment. Issues related to parenting school age children:

Adolescents

During adolescence children are beginning to form their identity and are testing and developing the interpersonal and occupational roles that they will assume as adults. Although adolescents look to peers and adults outside of the family for guidance and models for how to behave, parents remain influential in their development. Parents should make efforts to be aware of their adolescents activities, provide guidance, direction, and consultation. Adolescence can be a time of high risk for children, where newfound freedoms can result in decisions that drastically open up or close off life opportunities.

    • High School/Secondary education

Young Adults

    • College/Tertiary education


Observers

Benjamin Spock was an authority on parenting to a generation of North American parents. A current authority is T. Berry Brazelton, the founder of the Child Development Unit at Children's Hospital, Boston, and Professor of Pediatrics Emeritus at Harvard Medical School.

Parenting assessment

There are several parent self-report measures that have been developed for use by clinicians and researchers to assess parenting, such as the Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin, 1995) and Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI; Bavolek, 1984). Parenting measures can also be observational, such as the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II; Holigrocki, Kaminski, & Frieswyk, 1999).

See:

  • Abidin, R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index: Professional Manual. 3rd Ed. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
  • Bavolek, S. J. (1984). Handbook for the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory. Eau Claire, Wisconsin: Family Development Associates, Inc.
  • Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H. (1999). Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 63(3), 413–428.

Parenting styles

Some information in this article or section has not been verified and may not be reliable.
Please check for inaccuracies, and modify and cite sources as needed.
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Four main parenting styles have been identified in early child development research: authoritative, authoritarian and permissive and neglectful.[10]

Authoritative parenting is characterized by high expectations of compliance to parental rules and directions, an open dialogue about those rules and behaviors, and is a child-centered approach characterized by a warm, positive affect.

Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high expectations of compliance to parental rules and directions, the use of more coercive techniques to gain compliance, little parent-child dialogue. This is a parent-centered approach characterized by cold affect.

Permissive parenting is characterized as having few behavioral expectations for the child, and is a child-centered approach characterized by warm affect.

Neglectful parenting is similar to permissive parenting but is a parent centered approach characterized by cold affect.

Research into the child behavior outcomes associated with each type of parenting has traditionally shown a strong benefit to authoritative parenting. These children have been shown to have more self-discipline, emotional self-control, more friends and better school performance. However, recent research has identified a number of caveats. First, authoritarian parenting may be more effective in certain contexts and in social groups other than those studied in early research. Second, little research has examined the genetic influences that may underlie the findings. For instance, harsh parenting may produce harsher children through the mechanism of genetic transmission of these traits. Behavior genetics research is currently examining the influence of genes as they pertain to parenting styles. The final and most important criticism of the parenting styles research is that parenting has been shown to be part of a bi-directional relationship between parent and child. Thus, characterizing a parenting style as arising from the parent leaves out the essential influence of the child on the parent-child dyad.


Parenting from a faith perspective

Christian parenting

Christian parenting is popular amongst Evangelicals and fundamentalist Christian parents who see it as applying biblical principles to parenting. Information on Christian parenting is found in publications[11], Christian Parenting websites[12] and in seminars devoted to assisting parents to apply Christian principles to parenting. Particualy influential has been James Dobson and his guide "Dare to Discipline"[13].

While some Christian parenting models are strict and authoritarian, others are "grace-based" and share methods advocated in attachment parenting and positive parenting theories.

In a study[14] of Christian parents done by Christian Parenting Today in 2000, 39% have family devotions once a week or more, and 69% of parents consider Sunday school, youth and children's programs extremely important.

Some scientists, including Richard Dawkins, consider christian or other religious parenting to be child abuse.[1]

Notes

  1. George Washington, Rules of Civility in Conversation Among Men, in The Book of Virtues, edited by William J. Bennet, (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1993, pg. 18 ISBN 978-0684835778)
  2. Ross Campbell, M.D, How to Really Love Your Child, (Victor Books, 1977 ISBN 978-0781439121)
  3. Betsy and Farley Jones, Children of Peace. (Publisher: Holy Spirit Association., 1997 ISBN-10: 0910621845)
  4. http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG6
  5. Warner, Judith (2006). Perfect Madness: Motherhood in the Age of Anxiety (ISBN 1594481709)
  6. Hays, Sharon (1998) Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood (ISBN 0300076525)
  7. Hays,Sharon (1998). The Fallacious Assumptions and Unrealistic Prescriptions of Attachment Theory: A Comment on "Parents' Socioemotional Investment in Children Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Aug., 1998), pp. 782-790 doi:10.2307/353546
  8. Kagan, Jerome & Snidman, Nancy (2004). The Long Shadow of Temperament (ISBN 0-674-01551-7)
  9. Kemp, James S. et al (2000) Unsafe Sleep Practices and an Analysis of Bedsharing Among Infants Dying Suddenly and Unexpectedly: Results of a Four-Year, Population-Based, Death-Scene Investigation Study of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Related Deaths. PEDIATRICS Vol. 106 No. 3 September 2000, p. e41
  10. Baumrind, D. (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children. Youth and Society, 9, 238-276.
  11. http://www.thomasnelson.com/consumer/
  12. http://www.familiesonlinemagazine.com/christian-parenting/index.html
  13. Dobson, James. (1982) Dare to Discipline. Bantam. ISBN 978-0553255287
  14. http://www.christianitytoday.com/yc/2001/005/11.128.html

Further Reading

  • Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & Lerner, K. Lee (eds) (2006). Social Issues Primary Sources Collection: Family in society.. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-1414403205. 
  • Baumrind, Diana (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children. Youth and Society 9: 238-276.
  • Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed.), edited by P. H. Mussen, vol. 4: Socialization, personality, and social development, edited by E. M. Heatherington, 1-101. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471272876
  • Granju, Katie Allison and Sears, William. (1999) Attachment Parenting, Instinctive Care for Your Baby and Young Child, (ISBN 0-671-02762-X)
  • Hunt, Jan. (2001). The Natural Child: Parenting from the Heart, (ISBN 0-86571-440-1) http://www.naturalchild.org/book
  • Bobel, Chris. The Paradox of Natural Mothering, (ISBN 1-56639-907-6)
  • Liedloff, Jean. The Continuum Concept: In Search of Happiness Lost, (ISBN 0-201-05071-4)
  • Clarke-Stewart, A.K., Goosens, F.A., & Allhusen, V.D. (2001). "Measuring infant-mother attachment: Is the Strange situation enough?" Social Development, 10, p143-169.
  • S Kraemer (1991) The Origins of Fatherhood: An Ancient Family Process. Family Process 30 (4), 377–392. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1991.00377.x
  • Wilson, Andrew (Editor) and International Religious Foundation (Editor). (995). World Scripture:A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts. Paragon House Publishers. ISBN 1557787239.

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