Difference between revisions of "Islam in India" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Islam in India}}
 
{{Islam in India}}
'''Islam in India''' constitutes the second-most practiced religion after [[Hinduism]]. Approximately 151 million Muslims in India's population as of 2007 (according to government census 2001), i.e., 13.4% of the population.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90228.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - India]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> Currently, India has the third largest population of Muslims in the world, following [[Indonesia]] and [[Pakistan]].  
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'''Islam in India''' constitutes the second-most practiced religion after [[Hinduism]], with approximately 151 million [[Muslim]]s in India's population as of 2007 (according to government census 2001), i.e., 13.4 percent of the population. Currently, India has the third largest population of Muslims in the world, after [[Indonesia]] and [[Pakistan]].  
  
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[[Islam]] in [[India]] has had a fascinating, and powerful impact. Indeed, Islam has become woven into the very fabric of [[Indian civilization]] and [[Indian culture|culture]]. Muslims arrived in India during the life of [[Muhammad]] the [[Prophet]], establishing mosques and organizing missionary endeavors in the seventh century C.E. Those [[missionary]] efforts proved successful, rooting Islam firmly into Indian life. As often happens with missionary movements from all religions, merchant and trade endeavors went hand in hand with missionary work. [[Arabs]] had had a presence in India before the birth of Muhammad. That probably facilitated making inroads for Islam, since [[Arab traders]] established in India who converted to Islam already had a base of operations established.
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in the phenomenally diverse religious and cultural landscape of India.
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Islam in India had the unique experience of having to coexist with other religions. [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]] all had their origins in India. Although Buddhism went into decline in India from the eighth century C.E., it still maintained a major presence. [[Islam]] had to accommodate itself to one degree or another with most of the major world religions: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, [[Judaism]], and [[Christianity]]. That became extremely difficult at the time of [[Indian Independence Movement|India's independence]] from [[British Raj|British rule]]. A majority of Muslims agreed with the call of their leaders, especially [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], [[Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan]], and [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], to create a separate nation. The majority of Muslim's decided that living in cooperation with other religions, especially the dominant [[Hindu]] community, would hamstring their religious convictions. That led to the creation of [[Pakistan]] in 1947 and Bangladesh in 1971. The remnant [[Muslim]] community in India have struggled, with one degree of success or another, to cooperate
 
==History==
 
==History==
<!--{{main|Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent}}—>
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[[Image:RedFort.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The Delhi Fort, also known as the Red Fort.]]
 
The emergence of Islam in the region took place at the same time as the Turko-Muslim invasion of medieval India (which includes large parts of present day Pakistan and the Republic of India). Those rulers took over the administration of large parts of India. Since its introduction into India, Islam has made significant religious, artistic, philosophical, cultural, social and political contributions to Indian history.
 
The emergence of Islam in the region took place at the same time as the Turko-Muslim invasion of medieval India (which includes large parts of present day Pakistan and the Republic of India). Those rulers took over the administration of large parts of India. Since its introduction into India, Islam has made significant religious, artistic, philosophical, cultural, social and political contributions to Indian history.
  
 
During the twentieth century, the Muslims of [[South Asia]] have had a turbulent history within the region. After the [[Lahore Resolution]] of 1946, [[Muslim League]] politicians established [[Pakistan]], a Muslim-majority state, following independence from British rule. The Muslim populations of India and Pakistan number roughly the same. Former President of India, [[APJ Abdul Kalam]], declared Islam as have two presidents before him. Numerous politicians, as well as sports and film celebrities within India, also have been Muslim. Isolated incidences of violence, nonetheless, have occurred between the Muslim populations and the Hindu, Sikh and Christian populations.
 
During the twentieth century, the Muslims of [[South Asia]] have had a turbulent history within the region. After the [[Lahore Resolution]] of 1946, [[Muslim League]] politicians established [[Pakistan]], a Muslim-majority state, following independence from British rule. The Muslim populations of India and Pakistan number roughly the same. Former President of India, [[APJ Abdul Kalam]], declared Islam as have two presidents before him. Numerous politicians, as well as sports and film celebrities within India, also have been Muslim. Isolated incidences of violence, nonetheless, have occurred between the Muslim populations and the Hindu, Sikh and Christian populations.
  
Islam arrived in South Asia long before [[Muslim invasions of India]], the first influence came during the early 7th century with Arab traders. Arab traders visited the [[Malabar region]], linking them with the ports of [[South East Asia]], even before Islam established in Arabia. With the advent of Islam, Arabs became a prominent cultural force. Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went. [[Malik Bin Deenar]] built the first Indian mosque in [[Kodungallur]]in 612 C.E., at the behest of [[Cheraman Perumal]], during the life time of [[Muhammad]] (c. 571–632).<ref>[http://www.islamicvoice.com/june.2004/miscellany.htm#cjm -Cheraman Juma Masjid A Secular Heritage]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>
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Islam arrived in South Asia long before [[Muslim invasions of India]], the first influence came during the early seventh century with Arab traders. Arab traders visited the [[Malabar region]], linking them with the ports of [[South East Asia]], even before Islam established in Arabia. With the advent of Islam, Arabs became a prominent cultural force. Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went. [[Malik Bin Deenar]] built the first Indian mosque in [[Kodungallur]]in 612 C.E., at the behest of [[Cheraman Perumal]], during the life time of [[Muhammad]] (c. 571–632).<ref>P.A. Muhammed, [http://www.islamicvoice.com/june.2004/miscellany.htm#cjm Cheraman Juma Masjid A Secular Heritage]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>
  
In Malabar the [[Mappilas]] may have been the first community to convert to Islam. Moslems carried out intensive missionary activities along the coast, a number of natives embracing Islam. Those new converts joined the Mappila community. Thus among the Mapilas, both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and the converts from among the local people. In the 8th century, Syrian Arabs led by [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered the province of [[Sindh]] (Pakistan), becoming the easternmost province of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. In the first half of the 10th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] added the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] to the [[Ghaznavid Empire]], conducting several raids deep into [[India]]. [[Muhammad of Ghor]] conducted a more successful campaign at the end of the 12th century, leading to the creation of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].
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In Malabar the [[Mappilas]] may have been the first community to convert to Islam. Moslems carried out intensive missionary activities along the coast, a number of natives embracing Islam. Those new converts joined the Mappila community. Thus among the Mapilas, both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and the converts from among the local people. In the eighth century, [[Syria]]n Arabs led by [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered the province of [[Sindh]] (Pakistan), becoming the easternmost province of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. In the first half of the tenth century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] added the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] to the [[Ghaznavid Empire]], conducting several raids deep into [[India]]. [[Muhammad of Ghor]] conducted a more successful campaign at the end of the twelfth century, leading to the creation of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].
{{Islam by country}}
 
  
 
==Islam in Kerala and Tamil Nadu==
 
==Islam in Kerala and Tamil Nadu==
[[Malik Ibn Dinar]] and twenty other followers of Prophet Muhammad, first landed in [[Kodungallur]] in [[Kerala]]. Islam received royal patronage in some states here, and later spread to other parts of India. A local ruler gifted Dinar an abandoned Jain temple, where he established the first mosque in the Indian subcontinent in 629 C.E. Islamic scholars consider the mosque the second in the world to offer Jumma Prayer after the mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. His missionary team built ten additional mosques along the Malabar coast, including Kollam, Chaliyam, Pantalayini Kollam/Quilandi, Madayi/Pazhayangadi, Srikandhapuram, Dharmadom, Kasaragode,Mangalore and Barkur. Reportedly, they  built the mosques at Chombal, Kottayam, Poovar and Thengapattanam during that period.
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[[Malik Ibn Dinar]] and 20 other followers of Prophet Muhammad, first landed in [[Kodungallur]] in [[Kerala]]. Islam received royal patronage in some states here, and later spread to other parts of India. A local ruler gifted Dinar an abandoned Jain temple, where he established the first mosque in the Indian subcontinent in 629 C.E. [[Islam]]ic scholars consider the mosque the second in the world to offer Jumma Prayer after the mosque in Medina, [[Saudi Arabia]]. His missionary team built ten additional mosques along the Malabar coast, including Kollam, Chaliyam, Pantalayini Kollam/Quilandi, Madayi/Pazhayangadi, Srikandhapuram, Dharmadom, Kasaragode,Mangalore, and Barkur. Reportedly, they  built the mosques at Chombal, Kottayam, Poovar and Thengapattanam during that period.
  
 
After the fall of Chola Dynasty, the newly formed Vijayanagara Empire invited the Seljuk Turks from the fractions of Hanafi (known as Rowther in South India) for trade relations in 1279 C.E.. The largest armada of Turks traders and missionaries settled in Tharangambadi (Nagapattinam), Karaikal, Muthupet, Koothanallur and Podakkudi. Turks (Rowthers), failing to convert Hindus in Tanjore regions, settled in that area's with their armada, expanding into an Islam community of almost one million Rowthers. These new settlements were now added to the Rowther community. Hanafi fractions, more closely connected with the Turkish than others in South, have fair complexions. Some Turkish Anatolian and Turkish Safavid inscriptions have been found in wide area from Tanjore to Thiruvarur and in many villages. Madras Museum display the inscriptions to the public.  
 
After the fall of Chola Dynasty, the newly formed Vijayanagara Empire invited the Seljuk Turks from the fractions of Hanafi (known as Rowther in South India) for trade relations in 1279 C.E.. The largest armada of Turks traders and missionaries settled in Tharangambadi (Nagapattinam), Karaikal, Muthupet, Koothanallur and Podakkudi. Turks (Rowthers), failing to convert Hindus in Tanjore regions, settled in that area's with their armada, expanding into an Islam community of almost one million Rowthers. These new settlements were now added to the Rowther community. Hanafi fractions, more closely connected with the Turkish than others in South, have fair complexions. Some Turkish Anatolian and Turkish Safavid inscriptions have been found in wide area from Tanjore to Thiruvarur and in many villages. Madras Museum display the inscriptions to the public.  
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==Sufism and spread of Islam==
 
==Sufism and spread of Islam==
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[[Image:Jamamasjid.JPG|thumb|right|220px|The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa]]
 
[[Sufi]]s played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. Their success in spreading Islam has been attributed to the parallels in Sufi belief systems and practices with Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and [[monism]]. The Sufis' unorthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to accept the faith. Hazrat [[Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti]], [[Nizam-ud-din Auliya]], [[Shah Jalal]], [[Amir Khusro]], [[Sarkar Sabir Pak]], and [[Waris Pak]] trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire firmly established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of color and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the [[artisan]] and [[Dalit (outcaste)|untouchable]] communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Evidence of fanatical and violent conversions carried out by Sufi Muslims exists. [[Ahmed Sirhindi]], Naqshbandi Sufi passionately advocated peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.
 
[[Sufi]]s played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. Their success in spreading Islam has been attributed to the parallels in Sufi belief systems and practices with Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and [[monism]]. The Sufis' unorthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to accept the faith. Hazrat [[Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti]], [[Nizam-ud-din Auliya]], [[Shah Jalal]], [[Amir Khusro]], [[Sarkar Sabir Pak]], and [[Waris Pak]] trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire firmly established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of color and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the [[artisan]] and [[Dalit (outcaste)|untouchable]] communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Evidence of fanatical and violent conversions carried out by Sufi Muslims exists. [[Ahmed Sirhindi]], Naqshbandi Sufi passionately advocated peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.
  
 
==Role of Muslims in India's independence movement==
 
==Role of Muslims in India's independence movement==
The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers in India's struggle against the British has been documented, foremost among them Maulana [[Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]] and [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]]. [[Ashfaqullah Khan|Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan]] of [[Shahjehanpur]] conspired to loot the British treasury at [[Kakori]] ([[Lucknow]]). [[Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan]] (popularly known as Frontier Gandhi), emerged as a great nationalist who spent forty five of his ninety five years in jail. [[Barakatullah]] of [[Bhopal]], one of the founders of the [[Ghadar party]], helped to create a network of anti-British organizations. [[Syed Rahmat Shah]] of the Ghadar party worked as an underground revolutionary in [[France]] suffered execution by hanging for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar (mutiny) uprising in 1915. [[Ali Ahmad Siddiqui]] of [[Faizabad]] (UP) planned the [[Indian Mutiny]] in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and [[Burma]] along with [[Syed Mujtaba Hussain]] of [[Jaunpur]], suffering execution by hanging in 1917. [[Vakkom Abdul Khadar]] of [[Kerala]] participated in the "[[Quit India]]" struggle in 1942, also hanged for his role. [[Umar Subhani]], an industrialist and millionaire of Bombay, provided Gandhi with congress expenses and ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, [[Hazrat Mahal]], [[Asghari Begum]], Bi Amma contributed in the struggle of freedom from the British.
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[[Image:Victoria gate.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[Aligarh Muslim University]]]]
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The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers in India's struggle against the British has been documented, foremost among them Maulana [[Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Hakim Ajmal Khan]] and [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]]. [[Ashfaqullah Khan|Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan]] of [[Shahjehanpur]] conspired to loot the British treasury at [[Kakori]] ([[Lucknow]]). [[Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan]] (popularly known as Frontier Gandhi), emerged as a great [[nationalism|nationalist]] who spent forty five of his 95 years in jail. [[Barakatullah]] of [[Bhopal]], one of the founders of the [[Ghadar party]], helped to create a network of anti-British organizations. [[Syed Rahmat Shah]] of the Ghadar party worked as an underground revolutionary in [[France]] suffered execution by hanging for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar (mutiny) uprising in 1915. [[Ali Ahmad Siddiqui]] of [[Faizabad]] (UP) planned the [[Indian Mutiny]] in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and [[Burma]] along with [[Syed Mujtaba Hussain]] of [[Jaunpur]], suffering execution by hanging in 1917. [[Vakkom Abdul Khadar]] of [[Kerala]] participated in the "[[Quit India]]" struggle in 1942, also hanged for his role. [[Umar Subhani]], an industrialist and millionaire of Bombay, provided [[Gandhi]] with congress expenses and ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, [[Hazrat Mahal]], [[Asghari Begum]], Bi Amma contributed in the struggle of freedom from the British.
  
 
Until the 1930s [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] served as a member of the Indian National Congress, taking part of the freedom struggle. Dr. Sir [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]], poet and philosopher, stood as a strong proponent of Hindu-Muslim unity and an undivided India until the 1920s. [[Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar]] and [[Maulana Shaukat Ali]] struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for freedom alongside [[Mahatama Gandhi]] and Maulana Abdul Bari of [[Firangi Mahal]]. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.  
 
Until the 1930s [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] served as a member of the Indian National Congress, taking part of the freedom struggle. Dr. Sir [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]], poet and philosopher, stood as a strong proponent of Hindu-Muslim unity and an undivided India until the 1920s. [[Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar]] and [[Maulana Shaukat Ali]] struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for freedom alongside [[Mahatama Gandhi]] and Maulana Abdul Bari of [[Firangi Mahal]]. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.  
  
In the late 1920s, recognizing the different perspectives of the [[Indian National Congress]] and that of the [[All India Muslim League]], Dr. Sir [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] presented the concept of a separate Muslim homeland in India in the 1930s. Consequently, the ''[[All India Muslim League]]'' raised the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. That demand, raised in [[Lahore]] in 1940, became known as the [[Pakistan Resolution]]. Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal had passed away by then, and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], [[Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan]], [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], and many others led the [[Pakistan Movement]].  
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In the late 1920s, recognizing the different perspectives of the [[Indian National Congress]] and that of the [[All India Muslim League]], Dr. Sir [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] presented the concept of a separate Muslim homeland in India in the 1930s. Consequently, the ''All India Muslim League'' raised the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. That demand, raised in [[Lahore]] in 1940, became known as the [[Pakistan Resolution]]. Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal had passed away by then, and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], [[Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan]], [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], and many others led the [[Pakistan Movement]].  
  
 
Initially, the demand for separate Muslim homeland(s) fell within a framework of a large, independent, undivided India with autonomous regions governed by the Muslims. A number of other options to give the Muslim minority in India adequate protection and political representation in a free, undivided India, also came under debate. When the Indian National Congress, the [[All India Muslim League]], and the British colonial government failed to find common ground leading to early independence of India from the [[British Raj]], the All India Muslim League pressed unequivocally with its demand for a completely independent, sovereign country, [[Pakistan]].
 
Initially, the demand for separate Muslim homeland(s) fell within a framework of a large, independent, undivided India with autonomous regions governed by the Muslims. A number of other options to give the Muslim minority in India adequate protection and political representation in a free, undivided India, also came under debate. When the Indian National Congress, the [[All India Muslim League]], and the British colonial government failed to find common ground leading to early independence of India from the [[British Raj]], the All India Muslim League pressed unequivocally with its demand for a completely independent, sovereign country, [[Pakistan]].
  
 
==Law and politics==
 
==Law and politics==
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[[Image:Muslim wedding in India.jpg|220px|thumb|A Muslim couple being wed in India, as a Hindu man takes his [[ritual]] bath in the river.]]
 
"The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937" governs Muslims in India<ref name=MPL>[http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/muslimperact/muslimpersonalact.htm The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937] Vakilno1.com. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), [[divorce]], maintenance, gifts, [[waqf]], wills and inheritance.<ref name=MPLEX>[http://www.law.emory.edu/IFL/legal/india.htm India, Republic of Emory School of Law]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> The courts generally apply the [[Hanafi]] [[Sunni]] law, with exceptions made only for those areas where [[Shia]] law differs substantially from Sunni practice.  
 
"The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937" governs Muslims in India<ref name=MPL>[http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/muslimperact/muslimpersonalact.htm The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937] Vakilno1.com. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), [[divorce]], maintenance, gifts, [[waqf]], wills and inheritance.<ref name=MPLEX>[http://www.law.emory.edu/IFL/legal/india.htm India, Republic of Emory School of Law]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> The courts generally apply the [[Hanafi]] [[Sunni]] law, with exceptions made only for those areas where [[Shia]] law differs substantially from Sunni practice.  
  
 
Although the [[Indian constitution]] provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion, Article 44 recommends a [[Uniform civil code]]. The attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code has been strongly resisted, Indian Muslims viewing that as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country.
 
Although the [[Indian constitution]] provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion, Article 44 recommends a [[Uniform civil code]]. The attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code has been strongly resisted, Indian Muslims viewing that as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country.
 
==Hindu-Muslim conflict==
 
{{POV-section|date=December 2007}}
 
 
[[India]] has always maintained a [[Indian constitution|constitutional]] commitment to [[secularism]]. Since the colonial period, Hindu-Muslim relations in India have been marred by [[communal violence]]. The aftermath of the [[Partition of India]] in 1947 saw large scale [[sectarian strife]] and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These conflicts also stem from the ideologies of [[Hindu Nationalism]] versus [[Islamic Extremism]] and prevalent in certain sections of the population.
 
 
More Muslims have usually been killed than Hindus in inter-community violence in India, while many Hindus have been persecuted in neighboring Muslim states and in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. In all the communal riots since 1947, factually contested official police records reveal that three-quarters of lives lost and properties destroyed were Muslim, a figure that climbed to 85% during the 2002 riots in Gujarat.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story.html India's Great Divide] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>. Nevertheless, it is to be noted that most of the Muslims of India remained in their homeland while many Hindus felt forced to migrate from Pakistan to India or Abroad.
 
 
Violence against Hindus East Pakistan, seeing the transmigration of over two million Hindus from 1950 to 1969, and also that of many Urdu speaking Muslims from the newly formed Bangladesh to West Pakistan during and after the 1971 crisis. The birth of Bangladesh witnessed unparalleled violence against Hindus as well when nearly three million Bangladeshis were killed and another 10 million sought refuge in India, the majority of them were Hindu. In addition, [[Islamist]] attacks on Hindus in [[Kashmir]] such as the [[Wandhama massacre]] and [[Kaluchak Massacre]] contributed to the rising communal tensions in the region. The [[ethnic cleansing]] of the Hindu [[Kashmiri Pandits]] from the region by [[Islamists]] worsened the situation. The Indian military stationed in Kashmir has been accused by Pakistan, as well as human rights advocacy groups, of atrocities against the Muslim population in the region.
 
 
The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period has been compromised in the last decade with the razing of the disputed [[Babri Mosque]] in [[Ayodhya]]. The demolition took place in 1992 and was allegedly perpetrated by the [[Hindu Nationalism|Hindu Nationalist]] [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and organizations like [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]], [[Bajrang Dal]] and [[Vishwa Hindu Parishad]]. This was followed by [[tit for tat]] violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country including [[Mumbai]] with the [[Bombay Riots]] and also the [[1993 Mumbai Bombings]], amongst those allegedly involved in these atrocities were the Muslim Mafia don [[Dawood Ibrahim]] and the predominantly Muslim [[D-Company]] criminal gang.
 
 
 
In 2001 a [[2001 Indian Parliament attack|high profile attack]] on the [[Indian Parliament]] by Islamic militants created considerable strain on community relations.
 
 
Some of the most violent events in recent times took place during the infamous [[2002 Gujarat violence|Gujarat riots]] in India where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most of whom allegedly Muslim, some sources claim there were approximately 2000 Muslim deaths and 58 Hindu deaths,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story.html India's Great Divide] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> there were also allegations made of state involvement. <ref>[http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story2.html India's Great Divide] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/holnus/002200411132124.htm Demand for CBI probe into Zaheera's u-turn].''[[The Hindu]]'' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> The riots were in retaliation to the [[Godhra Train Burning]] in which 50 Hindus belonging to group called the [[Vishwa Hindu Parishad]], returning from the disputed site of the [[Babri Mosque]], were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. The incident was allegedly a planned act carried out by revengeful and extremist Ghanchi Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims according to Gujarat police.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2203/stories/20050211004203200.htm Still a burning question<!-- Bot generated title —>] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> The commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident. In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.[http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=75485]. The Nanavati Shah commission is yet to conclude its inquiry and recently declared that it is not going to give an interim report in the meantime. The Gujarat riots that took place in retaliation for the incident swiftly took the state out of control, with the killing of Muslims by angry mobs of Hindus. Several Hindu Nationalist groups and government ministers (including the chief minister of Gujarat state, Narendra Modi) have been accused of direct involvement in the anti-Muslim riots.
 
 
Muslim-Hindu conflicts have also been fomented due to the mushrooming of [[Islamic Extremist]] organisations like SIMI ([[Students Islamic Movement of India]]) whose goal is to establish Islamic rule in India. Other Pakistan based groups such as the [[Lashkar-e-Toiba]] and [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]] have been fomenting bias in the local Muslim populace against Hindus. These groups are believed by many to be responsible for the [[11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings]], in which nearly 200 people were killed. Such groups also attacked the Indian Parliament in 2001, declared parts of Indian Kashmir to be Pakistani in 1999 and have orchestrated numerous other attacks including constant attacks in Indian Kashmir and [[New Delhi bombings|bombings in the Indian capital]] New Delhi. In the meantime, the toll of innocent Muslims and Hindus at the altar of communal strife continues to mount. [http://www.sacw.net/DC/CommunalismCollection/ArticlesArchive/sikand20Nov2003.html]
 
 
As per Professor M.D. Nalapat (Vice-chairman of the Manipal Advanced Research Group, UNESCO Peace Chair, and professor of geopolitics at Manipal University), the reason for "Hindu - Muslim" conflict is "Hindu Backlash"  or "partial" secularism, in which only Hindus are expected to be secular while Muslims and other minorities remain free to practice exclusionary practices. India<ref>[http://www.upiasiaonline.com/Politics/2007/12/26/a_hindu_backlash_hits_sonia_gandhi/7005/ A Hindu backlash hits Sonia Gandhi - upiasiaonline.com<!-- Bot generated title —>] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>.
 
 
==Muslim-Christian Conflict==
 
 
For the most part, Muslims and Christians form the same vote bank in the left-of-center arena of politics, typically at odds with Hindus. However, in troubled areas of India, Muslims and Christians have come into conflict with each other.
 
 
Muslims in India who convert to Christianity are often subjected to harassment, intimidation, and attacks by Muslims. In Kashmir, the only Indian state with a Muslim majority, a Christian convert and missionary named Bashir Tantray was killed , allegedly by militant Islamists in 2006<ref>[http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=6705 Christian convert from Islam shot dead in Kashmir],'''SperoNews''' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>.
 
 
A Christian priest, K.K. Alavi, who is a convert from Islam, recently raised the ire of his former Muslim community and has received many death threats. An Islamic terrorist group named "The [[NDF India|National Development Front]]" actively campaigned against him.<ref>[http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Jan06/Art_Jan06_07.html Convert from Islam in India Remains on Death List],'''Christian Examiner''' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>.
 
  
 
==Muslims in modern India==
 
==Muslims in modern India==
[[Image:Islam in India.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Muslims]] praying in a [[mosque]] in [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]].]]
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[[Image:Islam in India.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Muslims]] praying in a [[mosque]] in [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]].]]
[[Image:Muslim wedding in India.jpg|250px|thumb|A Muslim couple being wed in India, as a Hindu man takes his [[ritual]] bath in the river.]]
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[[Muslims]] in [[India]] constitute 13.4 percent of total population. Muslims have played roles in various fields of the country's advancement. Average income of Indian Muslims ranks the lowest of all Indian's religious communities.  
{{Main|List of notable Muslims of independent India}}
 
[[Muslims]] in [[India]] are 13.4% of total population. Like all minorities, Muslims have played roles in various fields of the country's advancement.
 
Average income of Indian Muslims is the lowest across all Indian religions.
 
The reasons said for the same are, marriages to multiple females, more number of children and low educational levels.
 
Only four percent of Indian Muslims study in [[Madrasas]] where the primary medium of eduction is [[Urdu]]. The remaining 96% are either go to government schools, private schools or are illiterate as per [[Sachar Committee]] report. The purchasing power of the Muslim community in India was estimated at about $30 billion in 2005 (or 4 per cent of the national total). However, an overwhelming 131 million Muslims in India live on a per capita consumption of less than Rs.20 per day ($0.50 per day), according to the findings of the Arjun Sengupta report on the ''Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihood in the Unorganised Sector''.[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/High_growth_rate_of_9_has_bypassed_77_of_population/articleshow/2747321.cms] Despite such adversity, a vigorous 25 million-strong Muslim [[middle class]] developed in India in the last quarter of the 20th century.
 
 
 
==Prominent Indian Muslims==
 
 
 
*There have been three Muslim presidents of India, Dr. [[Zakir Hussain (politician)|Zakir Hussain]], Dr [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] and Dr. [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam]].
 
 
 
*India has also had some very popular Muslim actors- [[Shahrukh Khan]], [[Amir Khan]], [[Salman Khan]] and [[Saif Ali Khan]] are some of the most popular stars in [[Bollywood]]
 
 
 
Muslims are also playing pivotal roles in the advertising industry, film industry ([[Bollywood]]), modern art, academics, theatre and sports. Some large industries like [[Wipro]] Ltd., [[Wockhardt]], [[Himalaya health care]], [[Hamdard Laboratories]] and [[Mirza Tanners]] are owned by Muslims{{Fact|date=April 2008}}.
 
  
Muslims are represented in Indian politics. For details on parliamentary representation see [[Muslims in Parliament of India]].
+
Only four percent of Indian Muslims study in [[Madrasas]] where the primary medium of eduction is [[Urdu]]. The remaining 96 percent either attend government schools, private schools, or none according to the [[Sachar Committee]] report. The purchasing power of the Muslim community in India has been estimated at about $30 billion in 2005 (or 4 per cent of the national total). An overwhelming 131 million Muslims in India live on a per capita consumption of less than Rs.20 per day ($0.50 per day), according to the findings of the report on the <ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/High_growth_rate_of_9_has_bypassed_77_of_population/articleshow/2747321.cms Arjun Sengupta, ''Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihood in the Unorganised Sector'']. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> During the period 1975 to 2000, twenty five million Muslims belonged to the [[middle class]] in India.
 
 
==[[Sachar Committee]]==
 
According to a recently published report to government, called the Sachar Report, Muslims are heavily under-represented in different government and social areas.<ref>[http://www.milligazette.com/dailyupdate/2006/200612141_Sachar_Report_Status_Indian_Muslims.htm Summarised Sachar Report on Status of Indian Muslims] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/story/19623.html Sachar report to be implemented in full] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> Among other facts, it found that in the state of West Bengal, where Muslims make up 27% of the population, their employment in the government sector was below 3%.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
 
 
 
{{POV-section|date=December 2007}}
 
The Sachar report has received substantial backlash, including allegations of bias in the media coverage concerning the report. Indian media expert<ref>[http://www.dasukrishnamoorty.com/index.html Welcome to Dasu Krishnamoorthy Media Site<!-- Bot generated title —>] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> Dasu Krishnamoorti has criticized the media coverage of the report. He criticizes the claims made in the media, that the fault of the plight of the Muslim lays squarely on the Hindus and the Congress Party, as politically motivated in favor of the Muslim community and encourages "emotional segregation (between Muslims and Hindus) that hardly helps Muslims share the Indian miracle".The report stands criticized for misrepresenting data and figures, bias and "misrepresenting inequities".<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/11sachar.htm?zcc=rl Sachar Report, Myth and reality],'''Rediff.com'' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> Leaders of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] have also criticized the Sacher report as "distorted, politically motivated and dangerous," also pointing out that proposals of special reservation given to Muslims would harm the country, and criticized the [[United Progressive Alliance|UPA]] Government's endorsement of the report as a snub to their previous efforts to help the Muslim community.<ref name="bjp1">[http://in.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/29bjp.htm BJP criticized govt on Sachar report],''Rediff.com'' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/02/stories/2006120205450400.htm BJP leader criticized Sachar report],''The Hindu'' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> BJP leader [[Murli Manohar Joshi]] said that the tone and texture of the Sachar Committee "has a striking similarity to the [[Muslim League]] of pre-independence era. Unfortunately, the government is irrationally following a policy of blind populism which threatens to divide the nation."<ref name="bjp1"/>
 
 
 
'''Muslim employment in government sectors (according to the Sachar Report)'''<ref>[http://pay.hindu.com/ebook%20-%20ebfl20061215part1.pdf Frontline Magazine], ''pay. Hindu.com. This article is based on Sachar Report.'' .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>
 
<div style="font-size: 85%">
 
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:left;
 
! Area !! Muslim %
 
|-
 
|Total||4.9
 
|-
 
|PSUs||7.2
 
|-
 
|IAS, IFS, and IPS||3.2
 
|-
 
|Railways||4.5
 
|-
 
|Judiciary||7.8
 
|-
 
|Health||4.4
 
|-
 
|Transport||6.5
 
|-
 
|Home affairs||7.3
 
|-
 
|Education||6.5
 
|}
 
</div>
 
  
 
==Muslim institutes==
 
==Muslim institutes==
[[Image:Victoria gate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aligarh Muslim University]]]]
+
There are several well established Muslim institutes in India. Universities and institutes include [[Aligarh Muslim University]]<ref>[http://www.dshm.co.in Dar-us salam education trust]. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> (which has colleges like Deccan College of Engineering, Deccan School of Hospital Management, Deccan College of Medical Sciences), [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], [[Jamia Hamdard|Hamdard University]],<ref>[http://www.albarkaat.com/p2.htm  Al- Barkaat Educational Institutions]. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> [[Maulana Azad Education Society Aurangabad]], Dr. Rafiq Zakariya Campus Aurangabad,<ref>[http://www.alameen.edu/ Al Ameen Educational Society]. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> [[Crescent Engineering College]] and [[Al-Kabir educational society]]. Traditional Islamic Universities include Sunni Markaz Kerala <ref>[http://www.markazonline.com/ Sunni Markaz Kerala]. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> (the largest charitable, non governmental, non-profit Islamic institution in India), Raza Academy,<ref>[http://www.razaacademy.com/ Raza Academy]. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> Al jamiatulAshrafia, Azamgarh,<ref>[http://www.aljamiatulashrafia.org/ Al jamiatulAshrafia, Azamgarh]. Retrieved July 16, 2008.</ref> [[Darul Uloom Deoband]], and [[Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama]].
There are several well established Muslim institutes in India. Here is a list of reputed institutes established by Muslims.
 
*Modern Universities and institutes: [[Aligarh Muslim University]], , [http://www.dshm.co.in Dar-us salam education trust] (which has colleges like deccan college of engineering, Deccan school of hospital management, Deccan college of Medical sciences), [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], [[Jamia Hamdard|Hamdard University]],[http://www.albarkaat.com/p2.htm  Al- Barkaat Educational Institutions], [[Maulana Azad Education Society Aurangabad]], Dr. Rafiq Zakariya Campus Aurangabad]], [http://www.alameen.edu/ Al Ameen Educational Society],[[Crescent Engineering College]] and [[Al-Kabir educational society]].
 
*Traditional Islamic Universities: [http://www.markazonline.com/ Sunni Markaz Kerala] (the largest charitable, non governmental, non-profit Islamic institution in India), [http://www.razaacademy.com/ Raza Academy], [http://www.aljamiatulashrafia.org/ Al jamiatulAshrafia, Azamgarh], [[Darul Uloom Deoband]] and [[Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama]].
 
  
 
==Population statistics==
 
==Population statistics==
 +
[[Image:Jumatulwida.jpg|framepx220|thumb|right|Muslims praying by the historic Charminar.]]
 +
{{readout||left|250px|[[Islam]] constitutes the second-most practiced religion in [[India]] after [[Hinduism]]}}
 +
Islam represents [[India]]'s largest minority religion, with 138 million people as of the 2001 [[census]].<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90228.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - India]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> Unofficial estimates claim a far higher figure.
  
[[Image:Jumatulwida.jpg|framepx200|thumb|right|Muslims praying by the historic [[Charminar]] after filling the [[Makkah Masjid]], congregations of more than two hundred thousand pray on special occasions there.]]
+
The largest concentrations-about 47 percent of Muslims in India, according to the 2001 census—live in the three states of [[Uttar Pradesh]] (30.7 million) (18.5 percent), [[West Bengal]] (20.2 million) (25 percent), and [[Bihar]] (13.7 million) (16.5 percent). Muslims represent a majority of the local population only in [[Jammu and Kashmir]] (67 percent in 2001) and [[Lakshadweep]] (95 percent). High concentrations of Muslims reside in the eastern states of [[Assam]] (31 percent) and West Bengal (25 percent), and in the southern state of [[Kerala]] (24.7 percent) and [[Karnataka]] (12.2 percent).
Islam is [[India]]'s largest minority religion, with [[Muslim]]s officially constituting 13.4% of the country's population, or 138 million people as of the 2001 [[census]]. However, unofficial estimates claim a far higher figure supposedly discounted in censuses. For instance, in an interview with a well circulated newspaper of India ''[[The Hindu]]'' Justice K.M. Yusuf, a retired Judge from Calcutta High Court and Chairman of ''West Bengal Minority Commission'', has said that the real percentage of Muslims in India is at least 20%. [http://www.islamicpopulation.com/india_muslim.html]
 
  
[[Hindutva|pro Hindutva]] people say in their reports that the Muslim population has reached 30%. [http://www.newstodaynet.com/2006sud/06mar/2903ss1.htm] <ref>[http://www.newstodaynet.com/2006sud/06mar/2903ss1.htm], although the Hindutva organizations generally gain from portraying the Muslims as a demographic threat. [Anand, Dibyesh, The Violence of Security: Hindu Nationalism and the Politics of Representing 'the Muslim' as a Danger, The Round Table, Vol. 94, No. 379 (April 2005): 208] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>
+
==Islamic traditions in India==
 +
[[Image:Dargah sharif.jpg|thumb|220px|The Qawwali, the art of Singing a Song in the Praise of Islamic Personalities.]]  
 +
A majority of Muslims in India declare either Sunni [[Deobandi]] or Sunni [[Barelwi]] allegiance, although some declare allegiance to Shia, Sufi, Salafi and other smaller sects. Darul-Uloom Deoband has the most influential Islamic seminary in India, considered second only to [[Egypt]]'s Al-Azhar in its global influence.
  
The largest concentrations-about 47% of all Muslims in India, according to the 2001 census—live in the 3 states of [[Uttar Pradesh]] (30.7 million) (18.5%), [[West Bengal]] (20.2 million) (25%), and [[Bihar]] (13.7 million) (16.5%). Muslims represent a majority of the local population only in [[Jammu and Kashmir]] (67% in 2001) and [[Lakshadweep]] (95%). High concentrations of Muslims are found in the eastern states of [[Assam]] (31%) and West Bengal (25%), and in the southern state of [[Kerala]] (24.7%) and [[Karnataka]] (12.2%). Muslims are generally more educated, urban, integrated and prosperous in the Western and Southern states of India than in the Northern and Eastern ones{{Fact|date=January 2007}}; this could be due to partition when the more affluent and educated population migrated over the border{{Fact|date=January 2007}}, to Pakistan in the North and Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) in the East. India has the third largest Muslim population (after [[Indonesia]] and [[Pakistan]]) and also the second largest [[Shia]] Muslim population (after [[Iran]])  in the world.{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
+
[[Sufism]] constitutes a mystical path ([[tarika]]), as distinct from the legalistic path of the [[sharia]]. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, allowing him to become a Pir (living saint). A Pir may take on disciples ([[murid]]s) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of [[Moinuddin Chishti]] (1142-1236), who settled in [[Ajmer]], [[Rajasthan]], and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His [[Chishtiyya]] order became the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from [[Central Asia]] and [[Southwest Asia]] also reached to India, playing a major role in the spread of Islam.  
  
The analysis on [[Religion|religious]] data, among the six major religious communities, shows that the decadal growth of the Muslims was the highest (36.0%) in the 2001 census. This statistic suggested that while the growth rate for Hindus has fallen between 1991 and 2001 compared with 1981 and 1991, Muslims have actually grown faster in the last decade, this led Indian [[Mass media|media]]<ref>[http://www.indiatogether.org/2004/oct/med-census.htm The Muslim growth rate and the media] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref> and different parties raising an alarm at the growing number of Muslims and expressing concern about the demographic imbalance and overpopulation, which the Indian government is desperately trying to stop democratically.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2120/stories/20041008006101600.htm - The population bogey Frontline Coverstory Volume 21 - Issue 20, Sept. 25 - Oct. 08, 2004] .Retrieved July 8, 2008.</ref>
+
The most conservative wing of Islam in India has typically rested on the education system provided by the hundreds of religious training institutes ([[madrasa]]) throughout the country. The madrasa stress the study of the [[Qur'an]] and Islamic texts in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], but little else. Several national movements have emerged from this sector of the Muslim community. The [[Jamaati Islami]] (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an overtly Islamic government. The [[Tablighi Jamaat]] (Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit, and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor, if respected, force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of pirs and the memory of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]]. A powerful secularizing drive led by [[Syed Ahmad Khan]] resulted in the foundation of [[Aligarh Muslim University]] (1875 as the [[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]])—with a broader, more modern curriculum, than other major Muslim universities.
  
A grave objection to this theory is the fact that the 1991 census did not include Jammu & Kashmir, the only Muslim majority state and strife-torn Assam, while the 2001 census does include [[Jammu & Kashmir]]. Adjusted for this, the Muslim growth rate plunges from 36 per cent to 29.3 per cent.
+
==Indo-Islamic art and architecture==
 
+
[[Image:Charminar Hyderabad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Charminar]]]]
Muslim population in Indian states according to 2001 Census.
 
<small>
 
<table border="0" style="background:#efefef;"><tr>
 
<td valign=top>
 
<tr><th>State<th>Population<th> Percentage</tr>
 
<tr><td>Lakshadweep<td align=right>57,903<td align=center>95.4707</tr>
 
<tr><td>Jammu & Kashmir<td align=right>6,793,240<td align=center>66.9700</tr>
 
<tr><td>Assam<td align=right>8,240,611<td align=center>30.9152</tr>
 
<tr><td>West Bengal<td align=right>20,240,543<td align=center>25.2451</tr>
 
<tr><td>Kerala<td align=right>7,863,842<td align=center>24.6969</tr>
 
<tr><td>Uttar Pradesh<td align=right>30,740,158<td align=center>18.4961</tr>
 
<tr><td>Bihar<td align=right>13,722,048<td align=center>16.5329</tr>
 
<tr><td>Jharkhand<td align=right>3,731,308<td align=center>13.8474</tr>
 
<tr><td>Karnataka<td align=right>6,463,127<td align=center>12.2291</tr>
 
<tr><td>Uttaranchal<td align=right>1,012,141<td align=center>11.9225</tr>
 
<tr><td>Delhi<td align=right>1,623,520<td align=center>11.7217</tr>
 
<tr><td>Maharashtra<td align=right>10,270,485<td align=center>10.6014</tr>
 
<tr><td>Andhra Pradesh<td align=right>6,986,856<td align=center>9.1679</tr>
 
<tr><td>Gujarat<td align=right>4,592,854<td align=center>9.0641</tr>
 
<tr><td>Manipur<td align=right>190,939<td align=center>8.8121</tr>
 
<tr><td>Rajasthan<td align=right>4,788,227<td align=center>8.4737</tr>
 
<tr><td>Andaman & Nicobar Islands<td align=right>29,265<td align=center>8.2170</tr>
 
<tr><td>Tripura<td align=right>254,442<td align=center>7.9533</tr>
 
<tr><td>Daman & Diu<td align=right>12,281<td align=center>7.7628</tr>
 
<tr><td>Goa<td align=right>92,210<td align=center>6.8422</tr>
 
<tr><td>Madhya Pradesh<td align=right>3,841,449<td align=center>6.3655</tr>
 
<tr><td>Pondicherry<td align=right>59,358<td align=center>6.0921</tr>
 
<tr><td>Haryana<td align=right>1,222,916<td align=center>5.7836</tr>
 
<tr><td>Tamil Nadu<td align=right>3,470,647<td align=center>5.5614</tr>
 
<tr><td>Meghalaya<td align=right>99,169<td align=center>4.2767</tr>
 
<tr><td>Chandigarh<td align=right>35,548<td align=center>3.9470</tr>
 
<tr><td>Dadra & Nagar Haveli<td align=right>6,524<td align=center>2.9589</tr>
 
<tr><td>Orissa<td align=right>761,985<td align=center>2.0703</tr>
 
<tr><td>Chhattisgarh<td align=right>409,615<td align=center>1.9661</tr>
 
<tr><td>Himachal Pradesh<td align=right>119,512<td align=center>1.9663</tr>
 
<tr><td>Arunachal Pradesh<td align=right>20,675<td align=center>1.8830</tr>
 
<tr><td>Nagaland<td align=right>35,005<td align=center>1.7590</tr>
 
<tr><td>Punjab<td align=right>382,045<td align=center>1.5684</tr>
 
<tr><td>Sikkim<td align=right>7,693<td align=center>1.4224</tr>
 
<tr><td>Mizoram<td align=right>10,099<td align=center>1.1365</tr>
 
</table>
 
</small>
 
 
 
Percentage distribution of population (adjusted)
 
by religious communities : India – 1961 to 2001
 
Census (excluding Assam and J&K).
 
<table border="1">
 
<tr> <td> Year </td>
 
<td> Percentage</td> </tr>
 
 
 
<tr> <td> 1951 </td>
 
<td align="right"> 10.1% </td> </tr>
 
 
 
<tr> <td> 1971 </td>
 
<td align="right">  10.4% </td>  </tr>
 
 
<tr> <td> 1981 </td>
 
<td align="right">  11.9% </td>  </tr>
 
 
<tr> <td> 1991 </td>
 
<td align="right">  12.0% </td>  </tr>
 
 
<tr> <td> 2001 </td>
 
<td align="right">  12.8% </td>  </tr>
 
 
 
</table>
 
 
 
Percentage distribution (unadjusted) of population by religious communities India - 1961 to 2001 Census (without excluding Assam and J&K).
 
 
 
<table border="1">
 
<tr> <td> Year </td>
 
<td> Percentage </td> </tr>
 
 
 
<tr> <td> 1961 </td>
 
<td align="right"> 10.7% </td> </tr>
 
 
 
<tr> <td> 1971 </td>
 
<td align="right">  11.2% </td>  </tr>
 
 
<tr> <td> 1981 </td>
 
<td align="right">  12.0% </td>  </tr>
 
 
<tr> <td> 1991 </td>
 
<td align="right">  12.8% </td>  </tr>
 
 
<tr> <td> 2001 </td>
 
<td align="right">  13.4% </td>  </tr>
 
 
 
</table>
 
 
 
{| class="sortable wikitable" 
 
|+ ''Table : Census information for 2001: Hindu and Muslim compared''{{Ref_label|exclusiondata|α|none}}{{Ref_label|assamjk|β|none}} 
 
|- 
 
! Composition 
 
! [[Hindu]]s 
 
! [[Muslim]]s   
 
|- 
 
| % total of population 2001 
 
| 80.5 
 
| 13.4 
 
|- 
 
| 10-Yr Growth % (est '91–'01){{Ref_label|assamjk|β|none}} 
 
| 20.3 
 
| 36.0 
 
|- 
 
| Sex ratio* (avg. 933) 
 
| 931 
 
| 936 
 
|- 
 
| Literacy rate (avg. 64.8) 
 
| 65.1 
 
| 59.1 
 
|- 
 
| Work Participation Rate   
 
| 40.4 
 
| 31.3 
 
|- 
 
| Rural sex ratio 
 
| 944 
 
| 953 
 
|- 
 
| Urban sex ratio 
 
| 894 
 
| 907 
 
|- 
 
| Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs) 
 
| 925 
 
| 950 
 
|}
 
 
 
==Islamic traditions in South Asia==
 
 
 
[[Image:Dargah sharif.jpg|thumb|250px|The Qawwali is the  art of Singing a Song in the Praise of Islamic Personalities.]]
 
[[Image:Dargah.jpg|thumb|250px|A Huge Majority of Indian muslims Visit Dargahs of Sufi Saints for Dua.]]
 
 
Majority of Muslims in India are either Sunni [[Deobandi]] or Sunni [[Barelwi]], there are Shia, Sufi, Salafi and other smaller sects as well. Darul-Uloom Deoband is the most influential Islamic seminary in India and is considered second only to [[Egypt]]'s Al-Azhar in its global influence.
 
 
 
[[Sufism]] is a mystical path ([[tarika]]) as distinct from the legalistic path of the [[sharia]]. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behavior, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples ([[murid]]s) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of [[Moinuddin Chishti]] (1142-1236), who settled in [[Ajmer]], [[Rajasthan]], and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His [[Chishtiyya]] order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from [[Central Asia]] and [[Southwest Asia]] also reached to India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in [[regional language]]s that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.
 
  
The leadership of the Muslim community pursued various directions in the evolution of Indian Islam during the [[twentieth century]]. The most conservative wing has typically rested on the education system provided by the hundreds of religious training institutes ([[madrasa]]) throughout the country, which have tended to stress the study of the [[Qur'an]] and Islamic texts in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] but little else. Several national movements have emerged from this sector of the Muslim community. The [[Jamaati Islami]] (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an overtly Islamic government. The [[Tablighi Jamaat]] (Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit, and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor if respected force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of pirs and the memory of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]]. A powerful secularising drive led by [[Syed Ahmad Khan]] resulted in the foundation of [[Aligarh Muslim University]] (1875 as the [[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]])-with a broader, more modern curriculum, and other major Muslim universities.
+
[[Indian architecture]] took new shape with the advent of [[Islam]]ic rule in India towards the end of the twelftth century AD. Islam introduced new elements into the Indian architecture including: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of colored marble, painted plaster and brightly colored glazed tiles.  
  
==Indo Islamic art and architecture==
+
In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture, which utilized the trabeate order (i.e., horizontal beams spanned all spaces) the Islamic architecture practice arcuate form (i.e., an arch or dome bridges a space). Rather than creating the concept of arch or dome, Muslims borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, derived from other civilizations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders.  
[[Image:Jamamasjid.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa]]
 
[[Image:Charminar Hyderabad.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Charminar]]]]
 
[[Image:TajMosque.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Taj Mahal mosque or ''masjid'']]
 
[[Image:CastleAgraFort.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Khas Mahal.]]
 
[[Image:Agra-fort-6-jehangirs-palace.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Jehangiri Mahal.]]
 
[[Image:RedFort.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Delhi Fort, also known as the Red Fort, is one of the popular tourist destinations in Delhi.]]
 
[[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The Taj Mahal]]
 
Indian architecture took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century AD. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles.  
 
  
In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilizations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.
+
The Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in those countries—largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble—the Indo-Islamic monuments typical took the form of mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. The knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India, greatly facilitated the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture.  
  
Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.
+
Islamic architecture in India divides into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts provide examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts took an essentially functional design, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.  
 +
[[Image:TajMosque.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Taj Mahal mosque or ''masjid'']]
  
Mosques: The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A ''mihrab'' indicates the direction of the ''qibla'' for prayer. Towards the right of the ''mihrab'' stands the ''mimbar'' or pulpit from where the ''Imam'' presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.  
+
The mosque, or masjid, represents Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque, basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, has a dome for a crown. A ''mihrab'' indicates the direction of the ''qibla'' for [[prayer]]. Towards the right of the ''mihrab'' stands the ''mimbar'' or pulpit from where the ''Imam'' presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the caller summons the faithful to attend prayers makes up an invariable part of a mosque. Jama Masjids, large mosques, assemble the faithful for the Friday prayers.  
  
Tombs: Although not actually religious in nature, the tomb or maqbara introduced an entirely new architectural concept. While the masjid was mainly known for its simplicity, a tomb could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb’s grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur ([[Taj Mahal]]). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the ''huzrah'' in whose centre is the cenotaph or ''zarih''. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the ''maqbara'', in which the corpse is buried in a grave or ''qabr''. Smaller tombs may have a ''mihrab'', although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or ''rauza'' is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Holy Koran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.
+
Although not actually religious in nature, the tomb or maqbara introduced an entirely new architectural concept. While the masjid exuded simplicity, a tomb ranged from a simple Aurangazeb’s grave to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur ([[Taj Mahal]]). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the ''huzrah'', the  center serving as the cenotaph or ''zarih''. An elaborate dome covers the entire structure. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the ''maqbara'', with the corpse buried in a grave or ''qabr''. Smaller tombs may have a ''mihrab'', although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally an enclosure surrounds the whole tomb complex or ''rauza''. A dargah designated the tomb of a Muslim saint. Almost all Islamic monuments have verses from the Holy [[Koran]] carving in minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.
  
Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the Imperial style (1191 to 1557C.E.); the Provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal style (1526 to 1707C.E.).
+
[[Islamic architecture]] in India falls into three sections: Delhi or the Imperial style (1191 to 1557 C.E.); the Provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal style (1526 to 1707 C.E.).
 
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
 +
[[Islam]]<br/>
 +
[[Islamic philosophy]]<br/>
 +
[[Liberal movements within Islam]]<br/>
 +
[[Pillars of Islam]]<br/>
 +
[[Sunni Islam]]<br/>
 +
[[Shi'a Islam]]<br/>
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
*{{loc}}
+
<references/>
{{Reflist}}
+
* {{loc}}
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
  
*Elliot, H. M., and John Dowson. ''The History of India, As Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period.'' Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1990. OCLC 24474632
+
* Elliot, H. M., and John Dowson. ''The History of India, As Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period.'' Nabu Press, 2010. ISBN 978-1142017057
*Majumdar, R. C. (ed.), ''The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume VI'', The Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1960: Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.
+
* Majumdar, R. C. (ed.). ''The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume VI''. The Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1960: Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.
*Mistry, M. B. 2005. "Muslims in India: A Demographic and Socio-Economic Profile." ''JOURNAL OF MUSLIM MINORITY AFFAIRS.'' 25, no. 3: 399-422.  
+
* Mistry, M. B. "Muslims in India: A Demographic and Socio-Economic Profile." ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' 25(3) (2005): 399-422.  
*Nizami, Khaliq A. "Some Aspects of Khānqah Life in Medieval India" ''Studia Islamica'' 8 (1957):51–69.
+
* Nizami, Khaliq A. "Some Aspects of Khānqah Life in Medieval India." ''Studia Islamica'' 8 (1957):51–69.
*Siddiqui, M. K. A.(ed.) ''Marginal Muslim Communities in India.'' New Delhi: Institute of Objective Studies, 2004. OCLC 55961358 ([http://www.iosworld.org/life_on_the_margins.htm review])
+
* Siddiqui, M. K. A. (ed.). ''Marginal Muslim Communities in India.'' New Delhi: Institute of Objective Studies, 2004. {{OCLC|55961358}}
 +
 
 +
==Gallery==
 +
<center>
 +
<gallery>
 +
Image:CastleAgraFort.jpg|The Khas Mahal.
 +
Image:Agra-fort-6-jehangirs-palace.JPG|Jehangiri Mahal.
 +
Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|The Taj Mahal.
 +
Image:Dargah.jpg|A Huge Majority of Indian Muslims Visit Dargahs of Sufi Saints for Dua.
 +
</gallery>
 +
</center>
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved April 23, 2014.
  
 +
* [http://anindianmuslim.com Daily News & Views about Indian Muslims].
 +
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6159178.stm India Muslims have lowest rank] – ''BBC''.
 +
* [http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8360470 Why India's 150m Muslims are missing out on the country's rise] – ''Economist''.
 +
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/india/story/0,,1747079,00.html Muslim India struggles to escape the past] – ''Guardian''.
 +
* [http://www.cfr.org/publication/13659/ India's Muslim Population] – Council on Foreign Relations.
 +
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html#People CIA's The World Factbook - India].
 +
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454.htm Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs - Background Note: India].
  
*[http://sunninews.wordpress.com Indian Sunni News]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://anindianmuslim.com Daily News & Views about Indian Muslims]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
Articles
 
*[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?section=subcontinent&xfile=data/subcontinent/2007/april/subcontinent_april921.xml Indian Muslims are descendants of locals, says scientific study]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.futureofmuslimworld.com/research/pubID.38/pub_detail.asp Overview of Islamism in India] - by [[Husain Haqqani]], [[Hudson Institute]]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.dinarstandard.com/current/IndianMuslims061507.htm  Indian Muslims Inc, Their Market & Global Business Impact], ''Special Report by DinarStandard.com''. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://pay.hindu.com/ebook%20-%20ebfl20061215part1.pdf Frontline Magazine], ''pay. Hindu.com''. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6159178.stm India Muslims have lowest rank], ''BBC''. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8360470 Why India's 150m Muslims are missing out on the country's rise], ''Economist''. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/india/story/0,,1747079,00.html Muslim India struggles to escape the past], ''Guardian Unlimited''. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.cfr.org/publication/13659/ India's Muslim Population], Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501030811/story.html India's Great Divide], ''Time''. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html#People CIA's The World Factbook - India]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454.htm Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs - Background Note: India]. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
 
 
<!--{{Asia in topic|Islam in India}}—>
 
  
[[Category:Philosophy and Religion]]
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[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
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[[Category:Islam]]
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[[Category:Religion]]
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[[Category:History of Asia]]
  
 
{{credits|222552969}}
 
{{credits|222552969}}

Revision as of 15:07, 23 April 2014

Islam in India

Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg

History

Architecture

Mughal · Indo-Islamic

Major figures

Moinuddin Chishti · Akbar
Ahmed Raza Khan · Maulana Azad
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan · Bahadur Yar Jung

Communities

Northern · Mappilas · Tamil
Konkani · Marathi · Vora Patel
Memons · North-Eastern · Kashmiris
Hyderabadi · Dawoodi Bohras · Khoja
Oriya · Nawayath · Bearys · Meo · Sunni Bohras
Kayamkhani · Bengali

Islamic sects

Barelvi · Deobandi · Shia

Culture

Muslim culture of Hyderabad

Other topics

Ahle Sunnat Movement in South Asia
Indian Muslim nationalism
Muslim chronicles for Indian history

Islam in India constitutes the second-most practiced religion after Hinduism, with approximately 151 million Muslims in India's population as of 2007 (according to government census 2001), i.e., 13.4 percent of the population. Currently, India has the third largest population of Muslims in the world, after Indonesia and Pakistan.

Islam in India has had a fascinating, and powerful impact. Indeed, Islam has become woven into the very fabric of Indian civilization and culture. Muslims arrived in India during the life of Muhammad the Prophet, establishing mosques and organizing missionary endeavors in the seventh century C.E. Those missionary efforts proved successful, rooting Islam firmly into Indian life. As often happens with missionary movements from all religions, merchant and trade endeavors went hand in hand with missionary work. Arabs had had a presence in India before the birth of Muhammad. That probably facilitated making inroads for Islam, since Arab traders established in India who converted to Islam already had a base of operations established. in the phenomenally diverse religious and cultural landscape of India.

Islam in India had the unique experience of having to coexist with other religions. Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism all had their origins in India. Although Buddhism went into decline in India from the eighth century C.E., it still maintained a major presence. Islam had to accommodate itself to one degree or another with most of the major world religions: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Judaism, and Christianity. That became extremely difficult at the time of India's independence from British rule. A majority of Muslims agreed with the call of their leaders, especially Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan, and Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, to create a separate nation. The majority of Muslim's decided that living in cooperation with other religions, especially the dominant Hindu community, would hamstring their religious convictions. That led to the creation of Pakistan in 1947 and Bangladesh in 1971. The remnant Muslim community in India have struggled, with one degree of success or another, to cooperate

History

The Delhi Fort, also known as the Red Fort.

The emergence of Islam in the region took place at the same time as the Turko-Muslim invasion of medieval India (which includes large parts of present day Pakistan and the Republic of India). Those rulers took over the administration of large parts of India. Since its introduction into India, Islam has made significant religious, artistic, philosophical, cultural, social and political contributions to Indian history.

During the twentieth century, the Muslims of South Asia have had a turbulent history within the region. After the Lahore Resolution of 1946, Muslim League politicians established Pakistan, a Muslim-majority state, following independence from British rule. The Muslim populations of India and Pakistan number roughly the same. Former President of India, APJ Abdul Kalam, declared Islam as have two presidents before him. Numerous politicians, as well as sports and film celebrities within India, also have been Muslim. Isolated incidences of violence, nonetheless, have occurred between the Muslim populations and the Hindu, Sikh and Christian populations.

Islam arrived in South Asia long before Muslim invasions of India, the first influence came during the early seventh century with Arab traders. Arab traders visited the Malabar region, linking them with the ports of South East Asia, even before Islam established in Arabia. With the advent of Islam, Arabs became a prominent cultural force. Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went. Malik Bin Deenar built the first Indian mosque in Kodungallurin 612 C.E., at the behest of Cheraman Perumal, during the life time of Muhammad (c. 571–632).[1]

In Malabar the Mappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam. Moslems carried out intensive missionary activities along the coast, a number of natives embracing Islam. Those new converts joined the Mappila community. Thus among the Mapilas, both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and the converts from among the local people. In the eighth century, Syrian Arabs led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the province of Sindh (Pakistan), becoming the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate. In the first half of the tenth century, Mahmud of Ghazni added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid Empire, conducting several raids deep into India. Muhammad of Ghor conducted a more successful campaign at the end of the twelfth century, leading to the creation of the Delhi Sultanate.

Islam in Kerala and Tamil Nadu

Malik Ibn Dinar and 20 other followers of Prophet Muhammad, first landed in Kodungallur in Kerala. Islam received royal patronage in some states here, and later spread to other parts of India. A local ruler gifted Dinar an abandoned Jain temple, where he established the first mosque in the Indian subcontinent in 629 C.E. Islamic scholars consider the mosque the second in the world to offer Jumma Prayer after the mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. His missionary team built ten additional mosques along the Malabar coast, including Kollam, Chaliyam, Pantalayini Kollam/Quilandi, Madayi/Pazhayangadi, Srikandhapuram, Dharmadom, Kasaragode,Mangalore, and Barkur. Reportedly, they built the mosques at Chombal, Kottayam, Poovar and Thengapattanam during that period.

After the fall of Chola Dynasty, the newly formed Vijayanagara Empire invited the Seljuk Turks from the fractions of Hanafi (known as Rowther in South India) for trade relations in 1279 C.E.. The largest armada of Turks traders and missionaries settled in Tharangambadi (Nagapattinam), Karaikal, Muthupet, Koothanallur and Podakkudi. Turks (Rowthers), failing to convert Hindus in Tanjore regions, settled in that area's with their armada, expanding into an Islam community of almost one million Rowthers. These new settlements were now added to the Rowther community. Hanafi fractions, more closely connected with the Turkish than others in South, have fair complexions. Some Turkish Anatolian and Turkish Safavid inscriptions have been found in wide area from Tanjore to Thiruvarur and in many villages. Madras Museum display the inscriptions to the public.

In the 1300 C.E., Arabs settled in Nagore, Kilakkarai, Adirampattinam, Kayalpatnam, Erwadi and Sri Lanka. They may have been the first Shafi fractions community of Islam, known as Marakkar, in far south and coastal areas of South India. Shafi fractions also have mixed fair and darker complexion from their close connection with the Arabs. Arab traders opened many new villages in those areas and settles, conducting intensive missionary activities along the coast. A number of natives in Malaya and Indonesia embraced Islam. Arabs (Marakkar's) missionaries married local women, converting them to Islam. The Marakkars became one of the largest Islamic communities with almost 2.5 million peoples.

Sufism and spread of Islam

The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa

Sufis played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. Their success in spreading Islam has been attributed to the parallels in Sufi belief systems and practices with Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' unorthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to accept the faith. Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusro, Sarkar Sabir Pak, and Waris Pak trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire firmly established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of color and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Evidence of fanatical and violent conversions carried out by Sufi Muslims exists. Ahmed Sirhindi, Naqshbandi Sufi passionately advocated peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.

Role of Muslims in India's independence movement

Aligarh Muslim University

The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers in India's struggle against the British has been documented, foremost among them Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai. Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan of Shahjehanpur conspired to loot the British treasury at Kakori (Lucknow). Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popularly known as Frontier Gandhi), emerged as a great nationalist who spent forty five of his 95 years in jail. Barakatullah of Bhopal, one of the founders of the Ghadar party, helped to create a network of anti-British organizations. Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar party worked as an underground revolutionary in France suffered execution by hanging for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar (mutiny) uprising in 1915. Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of Faizabad (UP) planned the Indian Mutiny in Malaya and Burma along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of Jaunpur, suffering execution by hanging in 1917. Vakkom Abdul Khadar of Kerala participated in the "Quit India" struggle in 1942, also hanged for his role. Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire of Bombay, provided Gandhi with congress expenses and ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, Hazrat Mahal, Asghari Begum, Bi Amma contributed in the struggle of freedom from the British.

Until the 1930s Muhammad Ali Jinnah served as a member of the Indian National Congress, taking part of the freedom struggle. Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal, poet and philosopher, stood as a strong proponent of Hindu-Muslim unity and an undivided India until the 1920s. Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Shaukat Ali struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for freedom alongside Mahatama Gandhi and Maulana Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.

In the late 1920s, recognizing the different perspectives of the Indian National Congress and that of the All India Muslim League, Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal presented the concept of a separate Muslim homeland in India in the 1930s. Consequently, the All India Muslim League raised the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. That demand, raised in Lahore in 1940, became known as the Pakistan Resolution. Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal had passed away by then, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, and many others led the Pakistan Movement.

Initially, the demand for separate Muslim homeland(s) fell within a framework of a large, independent, undivided India with autonomous regions governed by the Muslims. A number of other options to give the Muslim minority in India adequate protection and political representation in a free, undivided India, also came under debate. When the Indian National Congress, the All India Muslim League, and the British colonial government failed to find common ground leading to early independence of India from the British Raj, the All India Muslim League pressed unequivocally with its demand for a completely independent, sovereign country, Pakistan.

Law and politics

A Muslim couple being wed in India, as a Hindu man takes his ritual bath in the river.

"The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937" governs Muslims in India[2] It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts, waqf, wills and inheritance.[3] The courts generally apply the Hanafi Sunni law, with exceptions made only for those areas where Shia law differs substantially from Sunni practice.

Although the Indian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion, Article 44 recommends a Uniform civil code. The attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code has been strongly resisted, Indian Muslims viewing that as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country.

Muslims in modern India

Muslims praying in a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

Muslims in India constitute 13.4 percent of total population. Muslims have played roles in various fields of the country's advancement. Average income of Indian Muslims ranks the lowest of all Indian's religious communities.

Only four percent of Indian Muslims study in Madrasas where the primary medium of eduction is Urdu. The remaining 96 percent either attend government schools, private schools, or none according to the Sachar Committee report. The purchasing power of the Muslim community in India has been estimated at about $30 billion in 2005 (or 4 per cent of the national total). An overwhelming 131 million Muslims in India live on a per capita consumption of less than Rs.20 per day ($0.50 per day), according to the findings of the report on the [4] During the period 1975 to 2000, twenty five million Muslims belonged to the middle class in India.

Muslim institutes

There are several well established Muslim institutes in India. Universities and institutes include Aligarh Muslim University[5] (which has colleges like Deccan College of Engineering, Deccan School of Hospital Management, Deccan College of Medical Sciences), Jamia Millia Islamia, Hamdard University,[6] Maulana Azad Education Society Aurangabad, Dr. Rafiq Zakariya Campus Aurangabad,[7] Crescent Engineering College and Al-Kabir educational society. Traditional Islamic Universities include Sunni Markaz Kerala [8] (the largest charitable, non governmental, non-profit Islamic institution in India), Raza Academy,[9] Al jamiatulAshrafia, Azamgarh,[10] Darul Uloom Deoband, and Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama.

Population statistics

File:Jumatulwida.jpg
Muslims praying by the historic Charminar.
Did you know?
Islam constitutes the second-most practiced religion in India after Hinduism

Islam represents India's largest minority religion, with 138 million people as of the 2001 census.[11] Unofficial estimates claim a far higher figure.

The largest concentrations-about 47 percent of Muslims in India, according to the 2001 census—live in the three states of Uttar Pradesh (30.7 million) (18.5 percent), West Bengal (20.2 million) (25 percent), and Bihar (13.7 million) (16.5 percent). Muslims represent a majority of the local population only in Jammu and Kashmir (67 percent in 2001) and Lakshadweep (95 percent). High concentrations of Muslims reside in the eastern states of Assam (31 percent) and West Bengal (25 percent), and in the southern state of Kerala (24.7 percent) and Karnataka (12.2 percent).

Islamic traditions in India

File:Dargah sharif.jpg
The Qawwali, the art of Singing a Song in the Praise of Islamic Personalities.

A majority of Muslims in India declare either Sunni Deobandi or Sunni Barelwi allegiance, although some declare allegiance to Shia, Sufi, Salafi and other smaller sects. Darul-Uloom Deoband has the most influential Islamic seminary in India, considered second only to Egypt's Al-Azhar in its global influence.

Sufism constitutes a mystical path (tarika), as distinct from the legalistic path of the sharia. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, allowing him to become a Pir (living saint). A Pir may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of Moinuddin Chishti (1142-1236), who settled in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishtiyya order became the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached to India, playing a major role in the spread of Islam.

The most conservative wing of Islam in India has typically rested on the education system provided by the hundreds of religious training institutes (madrasa) throughout the country. The madrasa stress the study of the Qur'an and Islamic texts in Arabic and Persian, but little else. Several national movements have emerged from this sector of the Muslim community. The Jamaati Islami (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an overtly Islamic government. The Tablighi Jamaat (Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit, and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor, if respected, force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of pirs and the memory of the Prophet. A powerful secularizing drive led by Syed Ahmad Khan resulted in the foundation of Aligarh Muslim University (1875 as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College)—with a broader, more modern curriculum, than other major Muslim universities.

Indo-Islamic art and architecture

Charminar

Indian architecture took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the twelftth century AD. Islam introduced new elements into the Indian architecture including: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of colored marble, painted plaster and brightly colored glazed tiles.

In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture, which utilized the trabeate order (i.e., horizontal beams spanned all spaces) the Islamic architecture practice arcuate form (i.e., an arch or dome bridges a space). Rather than creating the concept of arch or dome, Muslims borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, derived from other civilizations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders.

The Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in those countries—largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble—the Indo-Islamic monuments typical took the form of mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. The knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India, greatly facilitated the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture.

Islamic architecture in India divides into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts provide examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts took an essentially functional design, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.

Taj Mahal mosque or masjid

The mosque, or masjid, represents Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque, basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, has a dome for a crown. A mihrab indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the mimbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the caller summons the faithful to attend prayers makes up an invariable part of a mosque. Jama Masjids, large mosques, assemble the faithful for the Friday prayers.

Although not actually religious in nature, the tomb or maqbara introduced an entirely new architectural concept. While the masjid exuded simplicity, a tomb ranged from a simple Aurangazeb’s grave to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah, the center serving as the cenotaph or zarih. An elaborate dome covers the entire structure. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, with the corpse buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have a mihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally an enclosure surrounds the whole tomb complex or rauza. A dargah designated the tomb of a Muslim saint. Almost all Islamic monuments have verses from the Holy Koran carving in minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.

Islamic architecture in India falls into three sections: Delhi or the Imperial style (1191 to 1557 C.E.); the Provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal style (1526 to 1707 C.E.).

See also

Islam
Islamic philosophy
Liberal movements within Islam
Pillars of Islam
Sunni Islam
Shi'a Islam

Notes

  1. P.A. Muhammed, Cheraman Juma Masjid A Secular Heritage. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  2. The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937 Vakilno1.com. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  3. India, Republic of Emory School of Law. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  4. Arjun Sengupta, Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihood in the Unorganised Sector. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  5. Dar-us salam education trust. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  6. Al- Barkaat Educational Institutions. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  7. Al Ameen Educational Society. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  8. Sunni Markaz Kerala. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  9. Raza Academy. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  10. Al jamiatulAshrafia, Azamgarh. Retrieved July 16, 2008.
  11. International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - India. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  • This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain.


References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Elliot, H. M., and John Dowson. The History of India, As Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period. Nabu Press, 2010. ISBN 978-1142017057
  • Majumdar, R. C. (ed.). The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume VI. The Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1960: Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.
  • Mistry, M. B. "Muslims in India: A Demographic and Socio-Economic Profile." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 25(3) (2005): 399-422.
  • Nizami, Khaliq A. "Some Aspects of Khānqah Life in Medieval India." Studia Islamica 8 (1957):51–69.
  • Siddiqui, M. K. A. (ed.). Marginal Muslim Communities in India. New Delhi: Institute of Objective Studies, 2004. OCLC 55961358

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External links

All links retrieved April 23, 2014.

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