Difference between revisions of "Huron" - New World Encyclopedia

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The '''Wyandot''', or '''Wendat''', is an [[indigenous peoples of North America|indigenous people]] of [[North America]], originally from what is now [[Southern Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] and Southeast Michigan. They are culturally identified as an [[Iroquoian]] group, and were a confederacy of four tribes.  They grew corn and sunflowers.  Early [[France|French]] explorers called them the '''Huron''', either from the French ''huron'' (peasant), or, according to Jesuit Father [[Gabriel Lallemant]], from ''hure,'' the rough-haired head of wild boars. The Wyandot homelands, near [[Georgian Bay]], were known as [[Wendake]].
+
The '''Wyandot''', or '''Wendat''', also known as '''Huron''', are [[indigenous peoples of North America|indigenous people]] of [[North America]], originally from what is now [[Southern Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] and Southeast Michigan.
 +
 +
==Overview==
 +
The Wyandot are culturally identified as an [[Iroquoian]] group, and were a confederacy of four tribes.  They grew corn and sunflowers.  Early [[France|French]] explorers called them the '''Huron''', either from the French ''huron'' (peasant), or, according to Jesuit Father [[Gabriel Lallemant]], from ''hure,'' the rough-haired head of wild boars. The Wyandot homelands, near [[Georgian Bay]], were known as [[Wendake]].  
  
 +
The approximately 3,000 Wyandot in [[Quebec]] are primarily [[Catholic]] and speak [[French language|French]] as a first language. There are now efforts to promote the use and study of the [[Wyandot language]]. For many decades, a leading source of income for the Wyandot of Quebec has been selling pottery and other locally produced crafts.
  
==Language==
+
==History==
  
The approximately 3,000 Wyandot in [[Quebec]] are primarily [[Catholic]] and speak [[French language|French]] as a first language. There are now efforts to promote the use and study of the [[Wyandot language]]. For many decades, a leading source of income for the Wyandot of Quebec has been selling pottery and other locally produced crafts.
+
Early written accounts of the Wyandot were made by the French, particularly [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] such as [[Armand de La Richardie]], who learned the Wendat language and examined their social organization.  
  
==Culture==
+
[[Tuberculosis]] was endemic among the Wyandot, aggravated by the close and smoky living conditions.<ref>Hartney, P. C. (1981) "Tuberculois lesions in a prehistoric population sample from southern Ontario"  ''In'' Buikstra, Jane F. (ed.) (1981) ''Prehistoric Tuberculosis in the Americas'' Northwestern University Archaeological Program Scientific Papers No. 5, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. pp. 141-160. [http://worldcat.org/oclc/7197014 OCLC 7197014]</ref>
  
=== Missionary life ===
+
From 1634 to 1640, the Wyandot were devastated by European diseases such as [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], and numerous villages and areas were permanently abandoned. The population decreased from 35,000 to 12,000.<ref name="Warren"/>
A small group of religiously devoted men, also known as donnés, worked at the mission in return for food, clothing, and shelter. Also there were engagés, or hired men, and non-clerical Jesuits known as lay brothers. The Jesuits preached the Christian [[Gospel]] to the Huron, often adapting the story to more familiar local customs. One of the most famous examples of this was the "[[Huron Carol]]," a [[Christmas]] [[hymn]], a fictionalized version—using neither the original word nor tune—of which remains popular in Canadian churches to this day.
 
  
Soldiers had a small but important presence at the mission. Twenty-two soldiers wintered at Saint Marie in 1644, but many of the Jesuits resisted the idea of a military presence, as they feared the soldiers would "bring the worst of Europe" with them.
+
The establishment of the French [[Jesuit]] mission at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons in 1639 led to division amongst the Wyandot, with conflict between those who converted to [[Christianity]] and those who maintained their traditional beliefs. Disease, an unintended result of first contact between the Jesuits, their farm animals and the Wyandot, served to further the gap between the traditional Wyandot and the missionaries. Also during this time, the rivalry between the Wyandot and [[Iroquois]] began to reignite, and the Wyandot were weakened by their internal divisions and their losses from the conflict.
  
The establishment of the mission led to division amongst the Wendat, with conflict between those who converted to Christianity and those who maintained their traditional beliefs. Disease, an unintended result of first contact between the Jesuits, their farm animals and the Wendat, served to further the gap between the traditional Wendat and the missionaries. Also during this time, the rivalry between the Wendat and [[Iroquois]] began to reignite, and the Wendat were weakened by their internal divisions and their losses from the conflict.
+
Before the French arrived, the Wyandot had already been in conflict with the [[Iroquois]] to the south. Once the European powers became involved, this conflict intensified significantly. The French allied with the Wyandot, because they were the most advanced trading nation at the time. The Iroquois tended to ally with the [[England|English]], who took advantage of their hatred of the Wyandot and their new French allies. The introduction of European weapons increased the severity of wars, and, by about 1650, the Iroquois had almost completely destroyed the Wyandot tribes. The Jesuit mission of [[Sainte-Marie among the Hurons]], near modern [[Midland, Ontario]], was one focus of Iroquois attacks, and many of the Jesuit missionaries were killed; the mission was eventually dismantled by the settlers so as to prevent capture in 1648. After a bitter winter on [[Christian Island, Ontario]], some Wyandot relocated near [[Quebec City]] and settled at [[Wendake, Quebec]].
  
===Sainte-Marie among the Hurons===
+
The western Wyandot eventually re-established themselves in the area of [[Ohio]] and southern [[Michigan]]. This group became commonly known to English speakers as "Wyandots" (notably in [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s novel ''[[Wyandotte]]'', published in 1843). In the late 18th century, the Wyandot obtained a position of symbolic importance as the "uncles" to the [[Ohio Country]] tribes, who [[Northwest Indian War|waged war]] against the [[United States]] in the 1790s such as at the [[Big Bottom Massacre]]. Some Wyandot of the Wyandot Nation of Anderdon still live in southern Ontario and Michigan. However, most of the surviving people were displaced through [[Indian Removal]] in the early 19th century, and today a large population of Wyandot (over 4,000) can be found in eastern [[Kansas]] and [[Oklahoma]].
[[Image:Canada-iroquios brébeuf lallemant.jpg|thumb|200 px|Martyring of Brébef and Lallemant by the Iroquios]]
 
  
'''Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Sainte-Marie-au-pays-des-Hurons''') was a [[France|French]] [[Jesuit]] settlement in Wendake, the land of the Wendat, near modern [[Midland, Ontario]], from 1639 to 1649. It was the first non-[[First Nations|aboriginal]] settlement in what is now the province of [[Ontario]]. [[Canadian Martyrs|Eight missionaries]] from Sainte-Marie were [[martyr]]ed, and were [[canonization|canonized]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1930. A reconstruction of the mission now operates as a [[living museum]].
+
===Nineteenth century===
  
On June 16, 1649 the missionaries chose to burn the mission rather than risk seeing it desecrated or permanently overrun by Iroquois in further attacks. Fr. [[Paul Ragueneau]] wrote, <blockquote>''we ourselves set fire to it, and beheld burn before our eyes and in less than one hour, our work of nine or ten years.''</blockquote>
+
The famous actor [[Edmund Kean]], on his North American tour in 1825 when he was very much vilified for scandals in his personal life, was on his arrival in [[Quebec]] much impressed and moved with the kindness of some Wyandot tribespeople who attended his performances; he was made chief of the tribe.
  
Before the burning, the decision had already been made to bring the bones of Brébeuf and Lalemant with the Jesuits. The duty fell to shoemaker Christophe Regnault to extract the bones of the two men. Regnault exhumed the bodies, placed them into a lye solution and wrapped the bones in linens. The men's flesh remains were reburied together in the same grave.
+
In June 1853 Big Turtle, a chief of the Wyandot tribe, wrote to the Ohio State Journal regarding the current condition of his tribe. The Wyandots received nearly $127,000 in 1845. Big Turtle noted that in the spring of 1850 the tribal chiefs retroceded the
 +
granted land to the government. $100,000 of the proceeds was invested in 5% government stock. Removed from Ohio to the [[Indian Territory]], the Wyandot tribe had good libraries along with two thriving Sabbath Schools. They were in the process of organizing a division of the Sons of Temperance and maintained a sizable Temperance Society. Big Turtle commented on the agricultural yield, which produced an annual surplus for market. He said that the Wyandot's general thrift exceeded that of any tribe north of the [[Arkansas]] line. The Wyandot nation
 +
was ''contented and happy'', and enjoyed better living conditions than formerly in Ohio.<ref>''Civilization of the Wyandot Indians'', New York Times, June 1, 1853, Page 3.</ref>
  
The missionaries traveled to Gahoendoe (modern day [[Christian Island, Ontario|Christian Island]]) with the Wendat in an effort to construct a second mission designed especially for defence. However, a severe winter and the constant threat of Iroquois attack eventually forced the French from the area, and they travelled back to New France. The bones of Brébeuf and Lalemant were taken on both trips, and continue to exist today as holy relics.
+
A United States government treaty ceded the Wyandot Nation a small portion of fertile land located in an acute angle of the [[Missouri River]] and [[Kansas River]]. In addition the government granted thirty-two ''floating sections'' which were located on public lands west of the [[Mississippi River]]. By 1855 the number of Wyandots had diminished to 600 or 700. On August 14 of that year the Wyandot nation elected a chief, using polls which were located at a lodge about 200 yards from the [[confluence]] of the Kansas River and the Missouri River. The Kansas correspondent of the Missouri Republican reported that the judges of the election were three elderly [[braves]], who were trusted by their peers. Some of the floating sections were offered for sale on the same day at a price of $800. A section was composed of 640 acres. Altogether 20,480 acres were sold for $25,600. They were located in Kansas, Nebraska, and unspecified sites. Surveys were not required, with the title becoming complete at the time of location.<ref>''Wyandot Indians holding an Election-Their Land Claims'', New York Times, August 24, 1855, Page 2.</ref>
  
==History==
+
An October 1855 article in the [[New York Times]] reported that the Wayandots were free and without restrictions placed on other tribes. Their leaders were unanimously [[Pro Slavery]], which meant 900 or 1,000 additional votes in opposition to the [[Free State]] movement of Kansas.<ref>''Affairs In Kansas'', New York Times, October 2, 1855, Page 2.</ref>
  
===Contact with Europeans===
+
==Culture==
 +
The Wyandot were divided into various "nations," comprising the Huron Confederacy. There were four to six nations, including the Arendarhonon, Tahontaenrat, Attigneenongnahac and Attignawantan (that apparently included the Ataronchronon). This confederacy was similar to that of other Iroquoian peoples in the area: the Petun nation around [[Georgian Bay]] in southern-central Ontario was divided into Bear, Cord, Deer, and Rock tribes; the Attiwandaronk or [[Neutral Indian]]s on southern [[Lake Huron]] and northern [[Lake Erie]] were organized similarly to the [[Iroquois]], who were a league of five (later six) nations.
  
Established in 1639, the mission acted as a center and base of operations for [[Jesuit]] [[missionaries]] in the region as they worked amongst the Huron. It also provided an example of a functioning European community to the Huron. The mission was built near the Huron settlement of Quieunonascaranas, led by chief [[Auoindaon]].
+
The Wyandot lived in villages spanning from one to ten [[acres]] (40,000&nbsp;m²), most of which were fortified in defense against enemy attack. They practiced [[agriculture]] and lived in [[long house]]s similar to other [[Iroquoian]] cultural groups. The typical village had 900 to 1600 people organized into 30 or 40 longhouses.<ref name="Warren">Warrick, Gary (October 2003) "European Infectious Disease and Depopulation of the Wendat-Tionontate (Huron-Petun)" ''World Archaeology'' 35(2): pp. 258-275 </ref> Villages were abandoned every few decades as the nearby forest grew thin and the soil became less fertile.
  
The mission was initially founded by 18 men. Arriving in November 1639, they erected a makeshift shelter out of [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] pillars and a [[birch]] bark roof, using clay to build in the interior walls. After the arrivial of carpenter [[Charles Boivin]], further construction resulted in a chapel, a residence for the Jesuits, a cookhouse, a smithy and other buildings.
+
Wyandot practiced a loose monogamous marriage that could be ended by divorce by either party at any time and did not confer any degree of sexual exclusivity. Sexual restraints were few and far between, and attractive, young Wyandot women could accumulate considerable wealth bartering sexual favors.
  
===Wyandot communities===
+
The Wyandot maintained stores and provisions, and were comparatively wealthy. They engaged in extensive trade with neighboring tribes, and even with tribes from as far south as the lower [[Mississippi]]. They traded for [[tobacco]] with the neighboring [[Tionontati]] nation and Attiwandaron.  The Attiwandaron were also called the [[Neutral Indian]]s because they remained neutral in the conflict between the Wyandot and other [[Iroquois]]. This tobacco they then traded to the [[Anishinaabe]] nations to their north and the French. They forcibly prevented the Neutrals from establishing direct trade with the French, and so commanded huge profits as middlemen.
Each modern Wyandot community is a [[Tribal sovereignty|self-governing]] band:
 
* [[Huron-Wendat Nation]] just outside [[Quebec City]] called Wendake, with some 3,000 members
 
* Wyandot Nation of Anderdon in southern Ontario and Michigan, with headquarters in [[Trenton, Michigan]] and perhaps 800 members
 
* Wyandot Nation of Kansas, with headquarters in [[Kansas City, Kansas]], with perhaps 400 members
 
* [[Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma]] in [[Wyandotte, Oklahoma]], with between 3,000 and 4,000 members
 
  
The Wyandot were divided into various "nations," comprising the Huron Confederacy. There were four to six nations, including the Arendarhonon, Tahontaenrat, Attigneenongnahac and Attignawantan (that apparently included the Ataronchronon). This confederacy was similar to that of other Iroquoian peoples in the area: the Petun nation around [[Georgian Bay]] in southern-central Ontario was divided into Bear, Cord, Deer, and Rock tribes; the Attiwandaronk or [[Neutral Indian]]s on southern [[Lake Huron]] and northern [[Lake Erie]] were organized similarly to the [[Iroquois]], who were a league of five (later six) nations.
+
The Wyandot were [[animist]]s who believed spirits were present in just about everything, animate or inanimate. They had a number of rituals, including the torture of captives, relating to the worship of a sun [[deity]]. They were reported as holding an annual ceremony in which two young girls of the tribe would wed the tribe's fishing nets, in the hopes that this would encourage the nets to perform their tasks more effectively.
  
Early written accounts of the Wyandot were made by the French, particularly [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] such as [[Armand de La Richardie]], who learned the Wendat language and examined their social organization. Before the French arrived, the Wyandot had already been in conflict with the [[Iroquois]] to the south. Once the European powers became involved, this conflict intensified significantly. The French allied with the Wyandot, because they were the most advanced trading nation at the time. The Iroquois tended to ally with the [[England|English]], who took advantage of their hatred of the Wyandot and their new French allies. The introduction of European weapons increased the severity of wars, and, by about 1650, the Iroquois had almost completely destroyed the Wyandot tribes. The Jesuit mission of [[Sainte-Marie among the Hurons]], near modern [[Midland, Ontario]], was one focus of Iroquois attacks, and many of the Jesuit missionaries were killed (see [[Canadian Martyrs]]); the mission was eventually dismantled by the settlers so as to prevent capture in 1648. After a bitter winter on [[Christian Island, Ontario]], some Wyandot relocated near [[Quebec City]] and settled at [[Wendake, Quebec]].
+
==Sainte-Marie among the Hurons==
 +
[[Image:Canada-iroquios brébeuf lallemant.jpg|thumb|200 px|Martyring of Brébef and Lallemant by the Iroquios]]
  
The western Wyandot eventually re-established themselves in the area of [[Ohio]] and southern [[Michigan]]. This group became commonly known to English speakers as "Wyandots" (notably in [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s novel ''[[Wyandotte]]'', published in 1843). In the late 18th century, the Wyandot obtained a position of symbolic importance as the "uncles" to the [[Ohio Country]] tribes, who [[Northwest Indian War|waged war]] against the [[United States]] in the 1790s such as at the [[Big Bottom Massacre]]. Some Wyandot of the Wyandot Nation of Anderdon still live in southern Ontario and Michigan. However, most of the surviving people were displaced through [[Indian Removal]] in the early 19th century, and today a large population of Wyandot (over 4,000) can be found in eastern [[Kansas]] and [[Oklahoma]].
+
'''Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Sainte-Marie-au-pays-des-Hurons''') was a [[France|French]] [[Jesuit]] settlement in Wendake, the land of the Wyandot, near modern [[Midland, Ontario]], from 1639 to 1649. It was the first non-[[First Nations|aboriginal]] settlement in what is now the province of [[Ontario]]. [[Canadian Martyrs|Eight missionaries]] from Sainte-Marie were [[martyr]]ed, and were [[canonization|canonized]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1930. A reconstruction of the mission now operates as a [[living museum]].
  
 +
Established in 1639, the mission acted as a center and base of operations for [[Jesuit]] [[missionaries]] in the region as they worked amongst the Huron. It also provided an example of a functioning European community to the Huron. The mission was built near the Huron settlement of Quieunonascaranas, led by chief [[Auoindaon]].
  
 +
The mission was initially founded by 18 men. Arriving in November 1639, they erected a makeshift shelter out of [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] pillars and a [[birch]] bark roof, using clay to build in the interior walls. After the arrivial of carpenter [[Charles Boivin]], further construction resulted in a chapel, a residence for the Jesuits, a cookhouse, a smithy and other buildings.
  
 +
A small group of religiously devoted men, also known as donnés, worked at the mission in return for food, clothing, and shelter. Also there were engagés, or hired men, and non-clerical Jesuits known as lay brothers. The Jesuits preached the Christian [[Gospel]] to the Huron, often adapting the story to more familiar local customs. One of the most famous examples of this was the "[[Huron Carol]]," a [[Christmas]] [[hymn]], a fictionalized version—using neither the original word nor tune—of which remains popular in Canadian churches to this day.
  
 
+
Soldiers had a small but important presence at the mission. Twenty-two soldiers wintered at Saint Marie in 1644, but many of the Jesuits resisted the idea of a military presence, as they feared the soldiers would "bring the worst of Europe" with them.
=== War and martyrdom ===
 
With [[Iroquois]] aggression on the rise, an additional six soldiers were dispatched from France in 1649. The weakened Wendat nation was little match for the strengthened Iroquois who had used their trading alliances with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] to gain firearms.  
 
  
 
Eight of the missionaries—St. [[Jean de Brébeuf]] (1649), St. [[Noël Chabanel]] (1649), St. [[Antoine Daniel]] (1648), St. [[Saint Charles Garnier|Charles Garnier]] (1649), St. [[René Goupil]] (1642), St. [[Isaac Jogues]] (1646), St. [[Jean de Lalande]] (1646), and St. [[Gabriel Lallemant]] (1649)—were martyred in the Huron-Iroquois wars. Owing to the proximity of their deaths to Sainte-Marie, the bodies of Brébeuf and Lalemant were quickly recovered by the French and buried at the mission.  
 
Eight of the missionaries—St. [[Jean de Brébeuf]] (1649), St. [[Noël Chabanel]] (1649), St. [[Antoine Daniel]] (1648), St. [[Saint Charles Garnier|Charles Garnier]] (1649), St. [[René Goupil]] (1642), St. [[Isaac Jogues]] (1646), St. [[Jean de Lalande]] (1646), and St. [[Gabriel Lallemant]] (1649)—were martyred in the Huron-Iroquois wars. Owing to the proximity of their deaths to Sainte-Marie, the bodies of Brébeuf and Lalemant were quickly recovered by the French and buried at the mission.  
Line 78: Line 80:
 
The eight martyred missionaries were [[canonization|canonized]] by [[Pope Pius XI]] in 1930, and are collectively known in Canada as the [[Canadian Martyrs]]. The site, adjacent to the [[Martyrs' Shrine]], was visited by [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1984 as part of his papal visit to Canada.
 
The eight martyred missionaries were [[canonization|canonized]] by [[Pope Pius XI]] in 1930, and are collectively known in Canada as the [[Canadian Martyrs]]. The site, adjacent to the [[Martyrs' Shrine]], was visited by [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1984 as part of his papal visit to Canada.
  
===Society in the 17th century===
+
On June 16, 1649 the missionaries chose to burn the mission rather than risk seeing it desecrated or permanently overrun by Iroquois in further attacks. Fr. [[Paul Ragueneau]] wrote, <blockquote>''we ourselves set fire to it, and beheld burn before our eyes and in less than one hour, our work of nine or ten years.''</blockquote>  
The Wyandot lived in villages spanning from one to ten [[acres]] (40,000&nbsp;m²), most of which were fortified in defense against enemy attack. They practiced [[agriculture]] and lived in [[long house]]s similar to other [[Iroquoian]] cultural groups. The typical village had 900 to 1600 people organized into 30 or 40 longhouses.<ref name="Warren">Warrick, Gary (October 2003) "European Infectious Disease and Depopulation of the Wendat-Tionontate (Huron-Petun)"
 
''World Archaeology'' 35(2): pp. 258-275 </ref> Villages were abandoned every few decades as the nearby forest grew thin and the soil became less fertile.
 
  
Wyandot practiced a loose monogamous marriage that could be ended by divorce by either party at any time and did not confer any degree of sexual exclusivity. Sexual restraints were few and far between, and attractive, young Wyandot women could accumulate considerable wealth bartering sexual favors.
+
Before the burning, the decision had already been made to bring the bones of Brébeuf and Lalemant with the Jesuits. The duty fell to shoemaker Christophe Regnault to extract the bones of the two men. Regnault exhumed the bodies, placed them into a lye solution and wrapped the bones in linens. The men's flesh remains were reburied together in the same grave.
  
The Wyandot maintained stores and provisions, and were comparatively wealthy. They engaged in extensive trade with neighboring tribes, and even with tribes from as far south as the lower [[Mississippi]]. They traded for [[tobacco]] with the neighboring [[Tionontati]] nation and Attiwandaron.  The Attiwandaron were also called the [[Neutral Indian]]s because they remained neutral in the conflict between the Wyandot and other [[Iroquois]]. This tobacco they then traded to the [[Anishinaabe]] nations to their north and the French. They forcibly prevented the Neutrals from establishing direct trade with the French, and so commanded huge profits as middlemen.
+
The missionaries traveled to Gahoendoe (modern day [[Christian Island, Ontario|Christian Island]]) with the Wyandot in an effort to construct a second mission designed especially for defence. However, a severe winter and the constant threat of Iroquois attack eventually forced the French from the area, and they travelled back to New France. The bones of Brébeuf and Lalemant were taken on both trips, and continue to exist today as holy relics.
 
 
The Wyandot were [[animist]]s who believed spirits were present in just about everything, animate or inanimate. They had a number of rituals, including the torture of captives, relating to the worship of a sun [[deity]]. They were reported as holding an annual ceremony in which two young girls of the tribe would wed the tribe's fishing nets, in the hopes that this would encourage the nets to perform their tasks more effectively.
 
 
 
[[Tuberculois]] was endemic among the Wyandot, aggravated by the close and smoky living conditions.<ref>Hartney, P. C. (1981) "Tuberculois lesions in a prehistoric population sample from southern Ontario"  ''In'' Buikstra, Jane F. (ed.) (1981) ''Prehistoric Tuberculosis in the Americas'' Northwestern University Archaeological Program Scientific Papers No. 5, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. pp. 141-160. [http://worldcat.org/oclc/7197014 OCLC 7197014]</ref> From 1634 to 1640, the Wyandot were devasted by European diseases such as [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], and numerous villages and areas were permanently abandoned. The population decreased from 35,000 to 12,000.<ref name="Warren"/>
 
 
 
===19th century===
 
 
 
The famous actor [[Edmund Kean]], on his North American tour in 1825 when he was very much vilified for scandals in his personal life, was on his arrival in  [[Quebec]] much impressed and moved with the kindness of some Wyandot tribespeople who attended his performances; he was made chief of the tribe.
 
 
 
In June 1853 Big Turtle, a chief of the Wyandot tribe, wrote to the Ohio State Journal regarding the current condition of his tribe. The Wyandots received nearly $127,000 in 1845. Big Turtle
 
noted that in the spring of 1850 the tribal chiefs retroceded the
 
granted land to the government. $100,000 of the proceeds was invested in 5% government stock. Removed from Ohio to the [[Indian Territory]],
 
the Wyandot tribe had good libraries along with two thriving Sabbath Schools. They were in the process of organizing a division of the Sons of Temperance and maintained a sizable Temperance Society. Big Turtle commented on the agricultural yield, which produced an annual
 
surplus for market. He said that the Wyandot's general thrift exceeded
 
that of any tribe north of the [[Arkansas]] line. The Wyandot nation
 
was ''contented and happy'', and enjoyed better living conditions than
 
formerly in Ohio.<ref>''Civilization of the Wyandot Indians'', New York Times, June 1, 1853, Page 3.</ref>
 
 
 
A United States government treaty ceded the Wyandot Nation a small portion of fertile land located in an acute angle of the [[Missouri River]] and [[Kansas River]]. In addition the government granted thirty-two ''floating sections'' which were located on public lands west of the [[Mississippi River]]. By 1855 the number of Wyandots had diminished to 600 or 700. On August 14 of that year the Wyandot nation elected a chief, using polls
 
which were located at a lodge about 200 yards from the [[confluence]]
 
of the Kansas River and the Missouri River. The Kansas correspondent of the Missouri Republican reported that the judges of the election were three elderly [[braves]], who were trusted by their peers. Some of the floating sections were offered for sale on the same day at a price of $800. A section was composed of 640 acres. Altogether 20,480 acres were sold for $25,600. They were located in Kansas, Nebraska, and unspecified sites. Surveys were not required, with the title becoming complete at the time of location.<ref>''Wyandot Indians holding an Election-Their Land Claims'', New York Times, August 24, 1855, Page 2.</ref>
 
 
 
An October 1855 article in the [[New York Times]] reported that the
 
Wayandots were free and without restrictions placed on other tribes.
 
Their leaders were unanimously [[Pro Slavery]], which meant 900 or 1,000
 
additional votes in opposition to the [[Free State]] movement of Kansas.<ref>''Affairs In Kansas'', New York Times, October 2, 1855, Page 2.</ref>
 
  
 
==Contemporary Huron==
 
==Contemporary Huron==
 +
Each modern Wyandot community is a [[Tribal sovereignty|self-governing]] band:
 +
* [[Huron-Wendat Nation]] just outside [[Quebec City]] called Wendake, with some 3,000 members
 +
* Wyandot Nation of Anderdon in southern Ontario and Michigan, with headquarters in [[Trenton, Michigan]] and perhaps 800 members
 +
* Wyandot Nation of Kansas, with headquarters in [[Kansas City, Kansas]], with perhaps 400 members
 +
* [[Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma]] in [[Wyandotte, Oklahoma]], with between 3,000 and 4,000 members
  
In February 1985 the U.S. government agreed to pay descendants of the Wyandot Indians $5.5 million. The decision settled a 143-year-old
+
In February 1985 the U.S. government agreed to pay descendants of the Wyandot Indians $5.5 million. The decision settled a 143-year-old treaty which forced the tribe to sell their Ohio homes for less than fair value in 1842. A spokesman for the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] said that the government would pay $1,600 each, in July 1985, to 3,600 people in Kansas and Oklahoma who could prove they are Wyandot descendants. A program founded in the 1940s to address grievances filed by various Native American tribes allocated $800 million to rectify promises broken by settlers who invaded their territories. The Wyandot settlement was based on an 1830 Federal law which required Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River. Originally the Wyandots were paid .75 cents per acre for land that was worth $1.50 an acre.<ref> "Wyandot Indians Win $5.5 Million Settlement," ''New York Times'', February 11, 1985, Page A10.</ref>
treaty which forced the tribe to sell their Ohio homes for less than fair value in 1842. A spokesman for the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] said that the government would pay $1,600 each, in July 1985,
 
to 3,600 people in Kansas and Oklahoma who could prove they are Wyandot descendants. A program founded in the 1940s to address grievances filed by various Native American tribes allocated $800 million to rectify promises broken by settlers who invaded their territories. The
 
Wyandot settlement was based on an 1830 Federal law which required
 
Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River. Originally the
 
Wyandots were paid .75 cents per acre for land that was worth $1.50 an
 
acre.<ref>''Wyandot Indians Win $5.5 Million Settlement'', New York Times, February 11, 1985, Page A10.</ref>
 
  
 
In 1999, representatives the far-flung Wyandot bands of Quebec, Kansas, Oklahoma and Michigan gathered at their historic homeland in Midland, Ontario, and formally re-established the Wendat Confederacy.
 
In 1999, representatives the far-flung Wyandot bands of Quebec, Kansas, Oklahoma and Michigan gathered at their historic homeland in Midland, Ontario, and formally re-established the Wendat Confederacy.
Line 138: Line 111:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
*[http://www.wyandot.org/wendat.htm Wendat Dialects and the Development of the Huron Alliance]
 
*[[Bruce G. Trigger]]. 1969. ''The Huron: Farmers of the North''. Holt, Rinehart and Winston , USA. ISBN 0-03-079550-8
 
*[[Bruce G. Trigger]]. 1987. ''The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660''. Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0627-6
 
  
 +
*Bruce G. Trigger. 1969. ''The Huron: Farmers of the North''. Holt, Rinehart and Winston , USA. ISBN 0-03-079550-8
 +
*Bruce G. Trigger. 1987. ''The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660''. Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0627-6
 +
*William Elsey Connelley. 2006. ''Wyandot Folk Lore''. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1425493300
 
*Peter Dooyentate Clarke. 2006 [reprint of 1870 edition]. ''Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandotts, and Sketches of Other Indian Tribes of North America, True Traditional Stories of Tecumseh and His League.'' Global Language Press. ISBN 0-9738924-9-8
 
*Peter Dooyentate Clarke. 2006 [reprint of 1870 edition]. ''Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandotts, and Sketches of Other Indian Tribes of North America, True Traditional Stories of Tecumseh and His League.'' Global Language Press. ISBN 0-9738924-9-8
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
 +
* [http://www.wyandot.org/wendat.htm Wendat Dialects and the Development of the Huron Alliance]
 
* [http://www.kansastravel.org/huronindiancemetery.htm Huron Indian Cemetery]
 
* [http://www.kansastravel.org/huronindiancemetery.htm Huron Indian Cemetery]
 
* [http://www.wyandotte-nation.org/ Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma]
 
* [http://www.wyandotte-nation.org/ Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma]

Revision as of 21:12, 5 September 2007


Wyandot
(Ouendat, Wendat, Wyandat)
File:Wyandot Nation.png
Total population
circa 2001: 8,000
Regions with significant populations
CanadaQuébec, southwest Ontario;

United StatesOhio, Oklahoma, Michigan, Kansas

Languages
Wendat, French, English
Religions
Animism, Roman Catholicism, Other, None
Related ethnic groups
Native Americans/First Nations
  • North American natives

The Wyandot, or Wendat, also known as Huron, are indigenous people of North America, originally from what is now Southern Ontario, Quebec, Canada and Southeast Michigan.

Overview

The Wyandot are culturally identified as an Iroquoian group, and were a confederacy of four tribes. They grew corn and sunflowers. Early French explorers called them the Huron, either from the French huron (peasant), or, according to Jesuit Father Gabriel Lallemant, from hure, the rough-haired head of wild boars. The Wyandot homelands, near Georgian Bay, were known as Wendake.

The approximately 3,000 Wyandot in Quebec are primarily Catholic and speak French as a first language. There are now efforts to promote the use and study of the Wyandot language. For many decades, a leading source of income for the Wyandot of Quebec has been selling pottery and other locally produced crafts.

History

Early written accounts of the Wyandot were made by the French, particularly Jesuits such as Armand de La Richardie, who learned the Wendat language and examined their social organization.

Tuberculosis was endemic among the Wyandot, aggravated by the close and smoky living conditions.[1]

From 1634 to 1640, the Wyandot were devastated by European diseases such as measles and smallpox, and numerous villages and areas were permanently abandoned. The population decreased from 35,000 to 12,000.[2]

The establishment of the French Jesuit mission at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons in 1639 led to division amongst the Wyandot, with conflict between those who converted to Christianity and those who maintained their traditional beliefs. Disease, an unintended result of first contact between the Jesuits, their farm animals and the Wyandot, served to further the gap between the traditional Wyandot and the missionaries. Also during this time, the rivalry between the Wyandot and Iroquois began to reignite, and the Wyandot were weakened by their internal divisions and their losses from the conflict.

Before the French arrived, the Wyandot had already been in conflict with the Iroquois to the south. Once the European powers became involved, this conflict intensified significantly. The French allied with the Wyandot, because they were the most advanced trading nation at the time. The Iroquois tended to ally with the English, who took advantage of their hatred of the Wyandot and their new French allies. The introduction of European weapons increased the severity of wars, and, by about 1650, the Iroquois had almost completely destroyed the Wyandot tribes. The Jesuit mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, near modern Midland, Ontario, was one focus of Iroquois attacks, and many of the Jesuit missionaries were killed; the mission was eventually dismantled by the settlers so as to prevent capture in 1648. After a bitter winter on Christian Island, Ontario, some Wyandot relocated near Quebec City and settled at Wendake, Quebec.

The western Wyandot eventually re-established themselves in the area of Ohio and southern Michigan. This group became commonly known to English speakers as "Wyandots" (notably in James Fenimore Cooper's novel Wyandotte, published in 1843). In the late 18th century, the Wyandot obtained a position of symbolic importance as the "uncles" to the Ohio Country tribes, who waged war against the United States in the 1790s such as at the Big Bottom Massacre. Some Wyandot of the Wyandot Nation of Anderdon still live in southern Ontario and Michigan. However, most of the surviving people were displaced through Indian Removal in the early 19th century, and today a large population of Wyandot (over 4,000) can be found in eastern Kansas and Oklahoma.

Nineteenth century

The famous actor Edmund Kean, on his North American tour in 1825 when he was very much vilified for scandals in his personal life, was on his arrival in Quebec much impressed and moved with the kindness of some Wyandot tribespeople who attended his performances; he was made chief of the tribe.

In June 1853 Big Turtle, a chief of the Wyandot tribe, wrote to the Ohio State Journal regarding the current condition of his tribe. The Wyandots received nearly $127,000 in 1845. Big Turtle noted that in the spring of 1850 the tribal chiefs retroceded the granted land to the government. $100,000 of the proceeds was invested in 5% government stock. Removed from Ohio to the Indian Territory, the Wyandot tribe had good libraries along with two thriving Sabbath Schools. They were in the process of organizing a division of the Sons of Temperance and maintained a sizable Temperance Society. Big Turtle commented on the agricultural yield, which produced an annual surplus for market. He said that the Wyandot's general thrift exceeded that of any tribe north of the Arkansas line. The Wyandot nation was contented and happy, and enjoyed better living conditions than formerly in Ohio.[3]

A United States government treaty ceded the Wyandot Nation a small portion of fertile land located in an acute angle of the Missouri River and Kansas River. In addition the government granted thirty-two floating sections which were located on public lands west of the Mississippi River. By 1855 the number of Wyandots had diminished to 600 or 700. On August 14 of that year the Wyandot nation elected a chief, using polls which were located at a lodge about 200 yards from the confluence of the Kansas River and the Missouri River. The Kansas correspondent of the Missouri Republican reported that the judges of the election were three elderly braves, who were trusted by their peers. Some of the floating sections were offered for sale on the same day at a price of $800. A section was composed of 640 acres. Altogether 20,480 acres were sold for $25,600. They were located in Kansas, Nebraska, and unspecified sites. Surveys were not required, with the title becoming complete at the time of location.[4]

An October 1855 article in the New York Times reported that the Wayandots were free and without restrictions placed on other tribes. Their leaders were unanimously Pro Slavery, which meant 900 or 1,000 additional votes in opposition to the Free State movement of Kansas.[5]

Culture

The Wyandot were divided into various "nations," comprising the Huron Confederacy. There were four to six nations, including the Arendarhonon, Tahontaenrat, Attigneenongnahac and Attignawantan (that apparently included the Ataronchronon). This confederacy was similar to that of other Iroquoian peoples in the area: the Petun nation around Georgian Bay in southern-central Ontario was divided into Bear, Cord, Deer, and Rock tribes; the Attiwandaronk or Neutral Indians on southern Lake Huron and northern Lake Erie were organized similarly to the Iroquois, who were a league of five (later six) nations.

The Wyandot lived in villages spanning from one to ten acres (40,000 m²), most of which were fortified in defense against enemy attack. They practiced agriculture and lived in long houses similar to other Iroquoian cultural groups. The typical village had 900 to 1600 people organized into 30 or 40 longhouses.[2] Villages were abandoned every few decades as the nearby forest grew thin and the soil became less fertile.

Wyandot practiced a loose monogamous marriage that could be ended by divorce by either party at any time and did not confer any degree of sexual exclusivity. Sexual restraints were few and far between, and attractive, young Wyandot women could accumulate considerable wealth bartering sexual favors.

The Wyandot maintained stores and provisions, and were comparatively wealthy. They engaged in extensive trade with neighboring tribes, and even with tribes from as far south as the lower Mississippi. They traded for tobacco with the neighboring Tionontati nation and Attiwandaron. The Attiwandaron were also called the Neutral Indians because they remained neutral in the conflict between the Wyandot and other Iroquois. This tobacco they then traded to the Anishinaabe nations to their north and the French. They forcibly prevented the Neutrals from establishing direct trade with the French, and so commanded huge profits as middlemen.

The Wyandot were animists who believed spirits were present in just about everything, animate or inanimate. They had a number of rituals, including the torture of captives, relating to the worship of a sun deity. They were reported as holding an annual ceremony in which two young girls of the tribe would wed the tribe's fishing nets, in the hopes that this would encourage the nets to perform their tasks more effectively.

Sainte-Marie among the Hurons

Martyring of Brébef and Lallemant by the Iroquios

Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons (French: Sainte-Marie-au-pays-des-Hurons) was a French Jesuit settlement in Wendake, the land of the Wyandot, near modern Midland, Ontario, from 1639 to 1649. It was the first non-aboriginal settlement in what is now the province of Ontario. Eight missionaries from Sainte-Marie were martyred, and were canonized by the Roman Catholic Church in 1930. A reconstruction of the mission now operates as a living museum.

Established in 1639, the mission acted as a center and base of operations for Jesuit missionaries in the region as they worked amongst the Huron. It also provided an example of a functioning European community to the Huron. The mission was built near the Huron settlement of Quieunonascaranas, led by chief Auoindaon.

The mission was initially founded by 18 men. Arriving in November 1639, they erected a makeshift shelter out of cypress pillars and a birch bark roof, using clay to build in the interior walls. After the arrivial of carpenter Charles Boivin, further construction resulted in a chapel, a residence for the Jesuits, a cookhouse, a smithy and other buildings.

A small group of religiously devoted men, also known as donnés, worked at the mission in return for food, clothing, and shelter. Also there were engagés, or hired men, and non-clerical Jesuits known as lay brothers. The Jesuits preached the Christian Gospel to the Huron, often adapting the story to more familiar local customs. One of the most famous examples of this was the "Huron Carol," a Christmas hymn, a fictionalized version—using neither the original word nor tune—of which remains popular in Canadian churches to this day.

Soldiers had a small but important presence at the mission. Twenty-two soldiers wintered at Saint Marie in 1644, but many of the Jesuits resisted the idea of a military presence, as they feared the soldiers would "bring the worst of Europe" with them.

Eight of the missionaries—St. Jean de Brébeuf (1649), St. Noël Chabanel (1649), St. Antoine Daniel (1648), St. Charles Garnier (1649), St. René Goupil (1642), St. Isaac Jogues (1646), St. Jean de Lalande (1646), and St. Gabriel Lallemant (1649)—were martyred in the Huron-Iroquois wars. Owing to the proximity of their deaths to Sainte-Marie, the bodies of Brébeuf and Lalemant were quickly recovered by the French and buried at the mission.

The eight martyred missionaries were canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1930, and are collectively known in Canada as the Canadian Martyrs. The site, adjacent to the Martyrs' Shrine, was visited by Pope John Paul II in 1984 as part of his papal visit to Canada.

On June 16, 1649 the missionaries chose to burn the mission rather than risk seeing it desecrated or permanently overrun by Iroquois in further attacks. Fr. Paul Ragueneau wrote,

we ourselves set fire to it, and beheld burn before our eyes and in less than one hour, our work of nine or ten years.

Before the burning, the decision had already been made to bring the bones of Brébeuf and Lalemant with the Jesuits. The duty fell to shoemaker Christophe Regnault to extract the bones of the two men. Regnault exhumed the bodies, placed them into a lye solution and wrapped the bones in linens. The men's flesh remains were reburied together in the same grave.

The missionaries traveled to Gahoendoe (modern day Christian Island) with the Wyandot in an effort to construct a second mission designed especially for defence. However, a severe winter and the constant threat of Iroquois attack eventually forced the French from the area, and they travelled back to New France. The bones of Brébeuf and Lalemant were taken on both trips, and continue to exist today as holy relics.

Contemporary Huron

Each modern Wyandot community is a self-governing band:

  • Huron-Wendat Nation just outside Quebec City called Wendake, with some 3,000 members
  • Wyandot Nation of Anderdon in southern Ontario and Michigan, with headquarters in Trenton, Michigan and perhaps 800 members
  • Wyandot Nation of Kansas, with headquarters in Kansas City, Kansas, with perhaps 400 members
  • Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma in Wyandotte, Oklahoma, with between 3,000 and 4,000 members

In February 1985 the U.S. government agreed to pay descendants of the Wyandot Indians $5.5 million. The decision settled a 143-year-old treaty which forced the tribe to sell their Ohio homes for less than fair value in 1842. A spokesman for the Bureau of Indian Affairs said that the government would pay $1,600 each, in July 1985, to 3,600 people in Kansas and Oklahoma who could prove they are Wyandot descendants. A program founded in the 1940s to address grievances filed by various Native American tribes allocated $800 million to rectify promises broken by settlers who invaded their territories. The Wyandot settlement was based on an 1830 Federal law which required Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River. Originally the Wyandots were paid .75 cents per acre for land that was worth $1.50 an acre.[6]

In 1999, representatives the far-flung Wyandot bands of Quebec, Kansas, Oklahoma and Michigan gathered at their historic homeland in Midland, Ontario, and formally re-established the Wendat Confederacy.

The historian Georges Sioui is a Wyandot from a family active in the local politics of Wendake. Bruce Trigger was a noted scholar in Wyandot studies; in honour of his work, he was adopted as an honorary Wyandot.

The Kansas and Oklahoma groups have fought legal battles over the Huron Indian Cemetery in Kansas City, Kansas for over 100 years, and continue to do so in the 21st Century. The local Wyandots wish to preserve the 400 plus grave cemetery, while the Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma wants to use the land to establish commercial gambling.

Modern reconstruction of Sainte-Marie

Main entrance of Sainte-Marie.

The site of Sainte-Marie lay dormant until 1844, when Jesuit Fr. Pierre Chazelle conducted initial site excavations. Father Félix Martin continued this in 1855, and in 1940 the Society of Jesus purchased the property where Sainte-Marie stood. In 1941, Kenneth Kidd of the Royal Ontario Museum undertook the first scientific excavations of the site. Wilfrid and Elsie Jury of the University of Western Ontario undertook additional excavations, and in 1954 the graves of Brébeuf and Lalemant were discovered by Fr. Dennis Hegarty.

Sainte-Marie has been rebuilt as a historical site and living museum. All of the buildings and all the contents are reproductions. It is a popular tourist attraction, drawing thousands of visitors each week during the summer months. The site is managed by Huronia Historical Parks.

Notes

  1. Hartney, P. C. (1981) "Tuberculois lesions in a prehistoric population sample from southern Ontario" In Buikstra, Jane F. (ed.) (1981) Prehistoric Tuberculosis in the Americas Northwestern University Archaeological Program Scientific Papers No. 5, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. pp. 141-160. OCLC 7197014
  2. 2.0 2.1 Warrick, Gary (October 2003) "European Infectious Disease and Depopulation of the Wendat-Tionontate (Huron-Petun)" World Archaeology 35(2): pp. 258-275
  3. Civilization of the Wyandot Indians, New York Times, June 1, 1853, Page 3.
  4. Wyandot Indians holding an Election-Their Land Claims, New York Times, August 24, 1855, Page 2.
  5. Affairs In Kansas, New York Times, October 2, 1855, Page 2.
  6. "Wyandot Indians Win $5.5 Million Settlement," New York Times, February 11, 1985, Page A10.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bruce G. Trigger. 1969. The Huron: Farmers of the North. Holt, Rinehart and Winston , USA. ISBN 0-03-079550-8
  • Bruce G. Trigger. 1987. The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660. Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0627-6
  • William Elsey Connelley. 2006. Wyandot Folk Lore. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1425493300
  • Peter Dooyentate Clarke. 2006 [reprint of 1870 edition]. Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandotts, and Sketches of Other Indian Tribes of North America, True Traditional Stories of Tecumseh and His League. Global Language Press. ISBN 0-9738924-9-8

External links

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