Difference between revisions of "Death" - New World Encyclopedia

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There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when [[embalming]] procedures are just about to begin. Owing to significant scientific advancements in the [[Victorian era]], some people in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] became obsessively worried about living after being declared dead.
 
There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when [[embalming]] procedures are just about to begin. Owing to significant scientific advancements in the [[Victorian era]], some people in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] became obsessively worried about living after being declared dead.
  
A [[Certified first responder|first responder]] is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead. Some [[Emergency medical technician|EMT]] [[training manual]]s specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred.<ref name=Limmer> Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). [[Prentice Hall]].</ref> These indications include mortal [[decapitation]], [[rigor mortis]] (rigidity of the body), [[livor mortis]] (blood pooling in the part of the body at lowest elevation), decomposition, incineration, or other bodily damage that is clearly inconsistent with life. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a [[do not resuscitate]] (DNR) order, [[Emergency service|emergency workers]] are instructed to begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced [[dead on arrival]] (DOA). However, some states allow [[paramedics]] to pronounce death. This is usually based on specific criteria. Aside from the above mentioned conditions include advanced measures including CPR, [[intubation]], IV access, and administiring medicines without regaining a pulse for at least 20 minutes.
+
A [[Certified first responder|first responder]] is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead. Some [[Emergency medical technician|EMT]] [[training manual]]s specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred.<ref name=Limmer> Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). [[Prentice Hall]].</ref> These indications include mortal [[decapitation]], [[rigor mortis]] (rigidity of the body), [[livor mortis]] (blood pooling in the part of the body at lowest elevation), decomposition, incineration, or other bodily damage that is clearly inconsistent with life. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a [[do not resuscitate]] (DNR) order, [[Emergency service|emergency workers]] are instructed to begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced [[dead on arrival]] (DOA). However, some states allow [[paramedics]] to pronounce death. This is usually based on specific criteria. Aside from the above mentioned conditions include advanced measures including CPR, [[intubations]], IV access, and administering medicines without regaining a pulse for at least 20 minutes.
  
 
In cases of [[electric shock|electrocution]], CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned [[nerve]]s to recover, allowing an apparently-dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their [[face]]s are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an [[Emergency department|emergency room]].<ref name=Limmer /> This "diving response," in which [[metabolism|metabolic activity]] and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with [[cetacea]]ns called the [[mammalian diving reflex]].<ref name=Limmer />
 
In cases of [[electric shock|electrocution]], CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned [[nerve]]s to recover, allowing an apparently-dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their [[face]]s are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an [[Emergency department|emergency room]].<ref name=Limmer /> This "diving response," in which [[metabolism|metabolic activity]] and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with [[cetacea]]ns called the [[mammalian diving reflex]].<ref name=Limmer />
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In certain cultures, efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retardation of decay processes after the burial), as in [[Mummy|mummification]] or [[embalming]]. This happens during or after a [[funeral]] ceremony. Many funeral customs exist in different cultures. In some fishing or naval communities, the body is sent into the water, in what is known as [[burial at sea]]. Several mountain villages have a tradition of hanging the [[coffin]] in woods.
 
In certain cultures, efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retardation of decay processes after the burial), as in [[Mummy|mummification]] or [[embalming]]. This happens during or after a [[funeral]] ceremony. Many funeral customs exist in different cultures. In some fishing or naval communities, the body is sent into the water, in what is known as [[burial at sea]]. Several mountain villages have a tradition of hanging the [[coffin]] in woods.
  
A new alternative is [[ecological burial]]. This is a sequence of deep-freezing, pulverisation by vibration, [[freeze-drying]], removing [[metal]]s, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass.
+
A new alternative is [[ecological burial]]. This is a sequence of deep-freezing, pulverization by vibration, [[freeze-drying]], removing [[metal]]s, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass.
  
 
[[Cryonics]] is the process of [[cryopreservation|cryopreservating]] of a body to liquid [[nitrogen]] [[temperature]] to stop the natural decay processes that occur after death. Those practicing cryonics hope that future technology will allow the [[legally dead|legally deceased]] person to be restored to life when and if science is able to cure all disease, [[rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenate]] people to a youthful condition and repair damage from the cryopreservation process itself.  As of 2007, there were over 150 people in some form of cryopreservation at one of the two largest cryonics organizations, [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]] and the [[Cryonics Institute]].  
 
[[Cryonics]] is the process of [[cryopreservation|cryopreservating]] of a body to liquid [[nitrogen]] [[temperature]] to stop the natural decay processes that occur after death. Those practicing cryonics hope that future technology will allow the [[legally dead|legally deceased]] person to be restored to life when and if science is able to cure all disease, [[rejuvenation (aging)|rejuvenate]] people to a youthful condition and repair damage from the cryopreservation process itself.  As of 2007, there were over 150 people in some form of cryopreservation at one of the two largest cryonics organizations, [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]] and the [[Cryonics Institute]].  
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Bereavement, while a normal part of life for most people, carries a degree of risk when limited support is available.  Severe reactions to loss may carry over into familial relations and cause trauma for children, spouses and any other family members.  Many forms of what are termed '[[mental illness]]' have loss as their root, but covered by many years and circumstances this often goes unnoticed.  Issues of personal faith and beliefs may also face challenge, as bereaved persons reassess personal definitions in the face of great pain.  While many who grieve are able to work through their loss independently, accessing additional support from bereavement professionals may promote the process of healing. Individual counseling, professional [[support group]]s or educational classes, and peer-lead support groups are primary resources available to the bereaved. In some regions local hospice agencies may be an important first contact for those seeking bereavement support.
 
Bereavement, while a normal part of life for most people, carries a degree of risk when limited support is available.  Severe reactions to loss may carry over into familial relations and cause trauma for children, spouses and any other family members.  Many forms of what are termed '[[mental illness]]' have loss as their root, but covered by many years and circumstances this often goes unnoticed.  Issues of personal faith and beliefs may also face challenge, as bereaved persons reassess personal definitions in the face of great pain.  While many who grieve are able to work through their loss independently, accessing additional support from bereavement professionals may promote the process of healing. Individual counseling, professional [[support group]]s or educational classes, and peer-lead support groups are primary resources available to the bereaved. In some regions local hospice agencies may be an important first contact for those seeking bereavement support.
 
[[Image:RainbowBridge.jpg|thumb|130px|right|An artist's rendition of the [[Rainbow Bridge (pets)|Rainbow Bridge]], a mythical place where beloved pets wait in health and happiness for their owners to arrive, after they die.]]
 
[[Image:RainbowBridge.jpg|thumb|130px|right|An artist's rendition of the [[Rainbow Bridge (pets)|Rainbow Bridge]], a mythical place where beloved pets wait in health and happiness for their owners to arrive, after they die.]]
Mourning is the process of and practices surrounding death related grief. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate. Customs vary between different cultures and evolve over time, though many core behaviors remain constant. Wearing dark, sombre clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are also seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of grieving, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may also follow certain religious traditions for such occasions.
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Mourning is the process of and practices surrounding death related grief. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviors in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate. Customs vary between different cultures and evolve over time, though many core behaviors remain constant. Wearing dark, somber clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are also seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of grieving, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may also follow certain religious traditions for such occasions.
  
 
Mourning may also apply to the death of, or anniversary of the passing of, an important individual like a local leader, monarch, religious figure etc. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.
 
Mourning may also apply to the death of, or anniversary of the passing of, an important individual like a local leader, monarch, religious figure etc. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.
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[[Image:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Paradise]]  
 
[[Image:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Paradise]]  
  
Faith in some form of [[afterlife]] is an important aspect of many people's beliefs. Such beliefs are usually manifested as part of a religion, as they pertain to phenomena beyond the ordinary experience of the natural world. For example, one aspect of [[Hinduism]] involves belief in a continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth ([[Samsara]]) and the liberation from the cycle ([[Moksha]]). [[Eternal return]] is a non-religious concept proposing an infinitely recurring cyclic universe, which relates to the subject of the afterlife and the nature of [[higher consciousness|consciousness]] and [[time]]. Though various evidence has been advanced in attempts to demonstrate the reality of an afterlife, these claims have never been validated.  For this reason, the material or metaphysical existence of an afterlife remains a matter outside the scope of [[science]].
+
Faith in some form of [[afterlife]] is an important aspect of many people's beliefs. Such beliefs are usually manifested as part of a religion, as they pertain to phenomena beyond the ordinary experience of the natural world. For example, one aspect of [[Hinduism]] involves belief in a continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth ([[Samsara]]) and the liberation from the cycle ([[Moksha]]). [[Eternal return]] is a non-religious concept proposing an infinitely recurring cyclic universe, which relates to the subject of the afterlife and the nature of [[higher consciousness|consciousness]] and [[time]]. Though, various evidence has been advanced in attempts to demonstrate the reality of an afterlife, these claims have never been validated.  For this reason, the material or metaphysical existence of an afterlife remains a matter outside the scope of [[science]].
  
 
[[Image:afghan graveyard.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Green flags, the color of Islam, mark a graveyard in southeast Afghanistan.]]
 
[[Image:afghan graveyard.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Green flags, the color of Islam, mark a graveyard in southeast Afghanistan.]]
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A suicide attack occurs when an individual or group violently sacrifice their own lives for the benefit of their side. In the desperate final days of [[World War II]], many [[Japan]]ese pilots volunteered for [[kamikaze]] missions in an attempt to forestall defeat for the Empire.  In [[Nazi Germany]], [[Luftwaffe]] squadrons were formed to smash into [[United States|American]] [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]]s during daylight bombing missions, in order to delay the highly-probable [[Allied]] victory, although in this case, inspiration was primarily the Soviet and Polish ''taran'' [[ramming]] attacks, and death of the pilot was not a desired outcome.  The degree to which such a pilot was engaging in a heroic, selfless action or whether they faced immense [[Peer pressure|social pressure]] is a matter of historical debate. The Japanese also built one-man "[[human torpedo]]" suicide [[submarine]]s.
 
A suicide attack occurs when an individual or group violently sacrifice their own lives for the benefit of their side. In the desperate final days of [[World War II]], many [[Japan]]ese pilots volunteered for [[kamikaze]] missions in an attempt to forestall defeat for the Empire.  In [[Nazi Germany]], [[Luftwaffe]] squadrons were formed to smash into [[United States|American]] [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]]s during daylight bombing missions, in order to delay the highly-probable [[Allied]] victory, although in this case, inspiration was primarily the Soviet and Polish ''taran'' [[ramming]] attacks, and death of the pilot was not a desired outcome.  The degree to which such a pilot was engaging in a heroic, selfless action or whether they faced immense [[Peer pressure|social pressure]] is a matter of historical debate. The Japanese also built one-man "[[human torpedo]]" suicide [[submarine]]s.
  
However, suicide has been fairly common in warfare throughout history. Soldiers and civilians committed suicide to avoid capture and slavery (including the wave of German and Japanese suicides in the last days of World War II). Commanders committed suicide rather than accept defeat. Spies and officers have committed suicide to avoid revealing secrets under [[interrogation]] and/or [[torture]]. Behaviour that could be seen as suicidal occurred often in battle. Japanese [[infantry]]men usually fought to the last man, launched [[Banzai charge|"banzai" suicide charges]], and committed suicide during the [[Pacific island]] battles in World War II. In [[Saipan]] and [[Okinawa]], civilians joined in the suicides. Suicidal attacks by pilots were common in the [[20th century]]: the attack by U.S. [[torpedo planes]] at the [[Battle of Midway]] was very similar to a kamikaze attack.
+
However, suicide has been fairly common in warfare throughout history. Soldiers and civilians committed suicide to avoid capture and slavery (including the wave of German and Japanese suicides in the last days of World War II). Commanders committed suicide rather than accept defeat. Spies and officers have committed suicide to avoid revealing secrets under [[interrogation]] and/or [[torture]]. Behavior that could be seen as suicidal occurred often in battle. Japanese [[infantry]]men usually fought to the last man, launched [[Banzai charge|"banzai" suicide charges]], and committed suicide during the [[Pacific island]] battles in World War II. In [[Saipan]] and [[Okinawa]], civilians joined in the suicides. Suicidal attacks by pilots were common in the [[20th century]]: the attack by U.S. [[torpedo planes]] at the [[Battle of Midway]] was very similar to a kamikaze attack.
  
 
===Martyrdom===
 
===Martyrdom===
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Islam accepts a broader view of what constitutes a ''martyr'', including anyone who dies in the struggle between [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Islam|those lands under Muslim government]] and [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Harb|those areas outside Muslim rule]]. Generally, some seek to include [[suicide attack|suicide bombers]] as a "martyr" of Islam, however, this is widely disputed in mainstream [[Islamic philosophy|Islamic thought]], which argues that a martyr may not commit suicide.
 
Islam accepts a broader view of what constitutes a ''martyr'', including anyone who dies in the struggle between [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Islam|those lands under Muslim government]] and [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Harb|those areas outside Muslim rule]]. Generally, some seek to include [[suicide attack|suicide bombers]] as a "martyr" of Islam, however, this is widely disputed in mainstream [[Islamic philosophy|Islamic thought]], which argues that a martyr may not commit suicide.
 +
  
 
Though often religious in nature, martyrdom can be applied to a [[secularism|secular]] context as well. The term is sometimes applied to those who die or are otherwise severely affected in support of a cause, such as soldiers fighting in a war, doctors fighting an epidemic, or people leading [[Civil rights|civil rights movements]].  Proclaiming martyrdom is a common way to draw attention to a cause and garner support.
 
Though often religious in nature, martyrdom can be applied to a [[secularism|secular]] context as well. The term is sometimes applied to those who die or are otherwise severely affected in support of a cause, such as soldiers fighting in a war, doctors fighting an epidemic, or people leading [[Civil rights|civil rights movements]].  Proclaiming martyrdom is a common way to draw attention to a cause and garner support.
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Suicide is the act of intentionally taking one's own life. The term  "suicide" can also be used as a noun to refer to a person who has killed himself or herself.  
 
Suicide is the act of intentionally taking one's own life. The term  "suicide" can also be used as a noun to refer to a person who has killed himself or herself.  
  
Views on suicide have been influenced by cultural views on existential themes such as [[religion]], [[honor]], and the [[meaning of life]]. Most Western and Asian religions—the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]]—consider suicide a dishonorable act; in the West it was regarded as a serious [[Legal views of suicide|crime]] and [[sin|offense]] against [[God]] due to religious belief in the [[sanctity of life]]. [[Japan]]ese views on honor and religion led to [[seppuku]] being respected as a means to atone for mistakes or failure during the [[samurai]] era. In the 20th century suicide in the form of [[self-immolation]] has been used as a form of protest. [[Self-sacrifice]] for others is not usually considered suicide.
+
Views on suicide have been influenced by cultural views on existential themes such as [[religion]], [[honor]], and the [[meaning of life]]. Most Western and Asian religions—the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]]—consider suicide a dishonorable act; in the West it was regarded as a serious [[Legal views of suicide|crime]] and [[sin|offense]] against [[God]] due to religious belief in the [[sanctity of life]]. [[Japan]]ese views on honor and religion led to [[seppuku]] being respected as a means to atone for mistakes or failure during the [[samurai]] era. In the twentieth century suicide in the form of [[self-immolation]] has been used as a form of protest. [[Self-sacrifice]] for others is not usually considered suicide.
  
 
The predominant view of modern medicine is that suicide is a [[mental health]] concern, associated with psychological factors such as the difficulty of coping with [[clinical depression|depression]], inescapable [[pain and nociception|pain]] or [[fear]], or other [[mental illness|mental disorder]]s and pressures. Suicide is often interpreted as a "cry for help" and [[attention]], or to express [[despair]] and the wish to escape, rather than a genuine intent to die. Most suicides (for various reasons) do not succeed on a first attempt; those who later gain a history of repetitions are significantly more at risk of eventual completion.<ref>{{cite journal
 
The predominant view of modern medicine is that suicide is a [[mental health]] concern, associated with psychological factors such as the difficulty of coping with [[clinical depression|depression]], inescapable [[pain and nociception|pain]] or [[fear]], or other [[mental illness|mental disorder]]s and pressures. Suicide is often interpreted as a "cry for help" and [[attention]], or to express [[despair]] and the wish to escape, rather than a genuine intent to die. Most suicides (for various reasons) do not succeed on a first attempt; those who later gain a history of repetitions are significantly more at risk of eventual completion.<ref>{{cite journal
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===Euthanasia===
 
===Euthanasia===
 
{{main|Euthanasia}}
 
{{main|Euthanasia}}
Euthanasia is the practice of terminating the life of a person or animal in a [[Pain and nociception|painless]] or minimally painful way in order to prevent [[suffering]] or other undesired conditions in life. This may be voluntary or involuntary, and carried out with or without a physician. In a medical environment, it is normally carried out by oral, intravenous or intramuscular drug administration.
+
Euthanasia is the practice of terminating the life of a person or animal in a [[Pain and nociception|painless]] or minimally painful way in order to prevent [[suffering]] or other undesired conditions in life. This may be voluntary or involuntary, and carried out with or without a physician. In a medical environment, it is normally carried out by oral, intravenous or intramuscularly drug administration.
  
 
Laws around the world vary greatly with regard to euthanasia and are subject to change as people's values shift and better [[palliative care]] or treatments become available. It is legal in some nations, while in others it may be criminalized. Due to the gravity of the issue, strict restrictions and proceedings are enforced regardless of [[legal status]]. Euthanasia is a [[Controversy|controversial issue]] because of conflicting moral feelings both within a person's own beliefs and between different cultures, ethnicities, religions and other groups. The subject is explored by the mass media, authors, film makers and philosophers, and is the source of ongoing debate and emotion.
 
Laws around the world vary greatly with regard to euthanasia and are subject to change as people's values shift and better [[palliative care]] or treatments become available. It is legal in some nations, while in others it may be criminalized. Due to the gravity of the issue, strict restrictions and proceedings are enforced regardless of [[legal status]]. Euthanasia is a [[Controversy|controversial issue]] because of conflicting moral feelings both within a person's own beliefs and between different cultures, ethnicities, religions and other groups. The subject is explored by the mass media, authors, film makers and philosophers, and is the source of ongoing debate and emotion.

Revision as of 02:11, 22 August 2007


V. Camuccini: Lamentation over the Corpse of Socrates, early 1800s.

Death is the permanent end of the life of a biological organism. Death may refer to the end of life as either an event or condition. Many factors can cause or contribute to an organism's death, including predation, disease, habitat destruction, senescence, malnutrition and accidents. The principal causes of death in developed countries are diseases related to aging. Traditions and beliefs related to death are an important part of human culture, and central to many religions. In medicine, biological details and definitions of death have become increasingly complicated as technology advances.

Definition

Death of Marat by David

Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered the previous definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. This is now called "clinical death." Events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.

Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death": People are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases (cf. persistent vegetative state). It is presumed that a stoppage of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during sleep, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference. Identifying the moment of death is important in cases of transplantation, as organs for transplant must be harvested as quickly as possible after the death of the body.

The possession of brain activity, or ability to resume brain activity, is a necessary condition to legal personhood in the United States. "It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices." (Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983))

Those maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death — irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the case of Terri Schiavo brought the question of brain death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.

Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions.

Biology

Fate of dead organisms

Ants begin the decomposition of a dead snake.

After death an organism's remains become part of the biogeochemical cycle. Animals may be consumed by a predator or scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain. Examples include earthworms, woodlice and dung beetles. Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing material as they break it down into simpler molecules. Not all material need be decomposed fully however; for example coal is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation.

In animals, small movements of the limbs (for example twitching legs or wings) known as a postmortem spasm can sometimes be observed following death. Pallor mortis is a postmortem paleness which accompanies death due to a lack of capillary circulation throughout the body. Algor mortis describes the predictable decline in body temperature until ambient temperature is reached. Within a few hours of death rigor mortis is observed with a chemical change in the muscles, causing the limbs of the corpse to become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate. Assuming mild temperatures, full rigor occurs at about 12 hours, eventually subsiding to relaxation at about 36 hours. Decomposition isn't always a slow process however - for example fire is the primary mode of decomposition in most grassland ecosystems.[1]

Some organisms have hard parts such as shells or bones which may not decompose and become fossilized. Fossils are the mineralized or otherwise preserved remains or traces (such as footprints) of animals, plants, and other organisms. Fossils vary in size from microscopic, such as single cells, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous exoskeletons of invertebrates. Preservation of soft tissues is extremely rare in the fossil record.

Competition, natural selection and extinction

Death is an important part of the process of natural selection. Organisms that are less adapted to their current environment than others are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring, reducing their contribution to the gene pool of succeeding generations. Weaker genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading to processes such as speciation and extinction. It should be noted however that reproduction plays an equally important role in determining survival, for example an organism that dies young but leaves many offspring will be much have a greater Darwinian fitness than a long lived organism which leaves only one.

The Dodo, shown here in illustration, is an often-cited[2] example of modern extinction.

Extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "re-appears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence.

Through evolution, new species arise through the process of speciation — where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche — and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance,[3] although some species, called living fossils, survive virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of years. Only one in a thousand species that have existed remain today.[3][4]

Prior to the dispersion of humans across the earth, extinction generally occurred at a continuous low rate, interspersed with rare mass extinction events. Starting approximately 100,000 years ago, and coinciding with an increase in the numbers and range of humans, species extinctions have increased to a rate unprecedented[5] since the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event. This is known as the Holocene extinction event and is at least the sixth such extinction event. Some experts have estimated that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100.[6]

In medicine

Misdiagnosed death

There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when embalming procedures are just about to begin. Owing to significant scientific advancements in the Victorian era, some people in Britain became obsessively worried about living after being declared dead.

A first responder is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead. Some EMT training manuals specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred.[7] These indications include mortal decapitation, rigor mortis (rigidity of the body), livor mortis (blood pooling in the part of the body at lowest elevation), decomposition, incineration, or other bodily damage that is clearly inconsistent with life. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a do not resuscitate (DNR) order, emergency workers are instructed to begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced dead on arrival (DOA). However, some states allow paramedics to pronounce death. This is usually based on specific criteria. Aside from the above mentioned conditions include advanced measures including CPR, intubations, IV access, and administering medicines without regaining a pulse for at least 20 minutes.

In cases of electrocution, CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently-dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.[7] This "diving response," in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.[7]

As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the concept of information theoretical death has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death actually occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside of the field of cryonics.

There have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life, but with limited success [1]. In science fiction scenarios where such technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from reversible death.

Causes of human death

File:Treny normal.jpg
Jan Kochanowski over the dead body of his dauhgter, Urszulka

Death can be caused by disease, accident, homicide, or suicide. The leading cause of death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes of death in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. These conditions cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues. With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed. Home deaths, once the norm, are now rare in the first world.

In third world countries, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to medical technology makes death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries. One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease which killed 1.7 million people in 2004.[8]

Many leading first world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only just beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.[9]

Autopsy

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt, depicts an autopsy

An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.

Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is reconstituted by sewing it back together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed light on mistakes and help improve practices.

A necropsy is a postmortem examination performed on a non-human animal, such as a pet.

Life extension

Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age-related afflictions such as cancer or cardiovascular disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking and excessive eating of sugar-containing foods. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.

Researchers of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as "biomedical gerontologists." They seek to understand the nature of aging and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists." The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed, which given the rapidly advancing state of biogenetic and general medical technology, could conceivably occur within the lifetimes of people living today.

Many biomedical gerontologists and life extensionists believe that future breakthroughs in tissue rejuvenation with stem cells, organs replacement (with artificial organs or xenotransplantations) and molecular repair will eliminate all aging and disease as well as allow for complete rejuvenation to a youthful condition. Whether such breakthroughs can occur within the next few decades is impossible to predict. Some life extensionists arrange to be cryonically preserved upon legal death so that they can await the time when future medicine can eliminate disease, rejuvenate them to a lasting youthful condition and repair damage caused by the cryonics process. Whether the maximum human lifespan should be extended is the subject of much ethical debate amongst politicians and scientists.

Death in culture

"All Is Vanity" by C. Allan Gilbert, suggesting an intertwinement between life and death.

Death has a unique image in global culture. It is respected and feared throughout the world. The unknown aspects of death has produced a type of fascination that many take to extreme levels.

Settlement of dead bodies

File:Carriage-cc-sa.JPG
A horse-drawn hearse with driver, circa 1900.

In most cultures, before the onset of significant decay, the body undergoes some type of ritual disposal, usually either cremation or interment in a tomb. Cremation is a very old and quite common custom, if one takes into account the sheer numbers of next of kin (of dead) practicing it. The act of cremation exemplifies the belief of the concept of "ashes to ashes." The other modes of disposal include interment in a grave, but may also be a sarcophagus, crypt, sepulchre, or ossuary, a mound or barrow, or a monumental surface structure such as a mausoleum (exemplified by the Taj Mahal) or a pyramid (as exemplified by the Great Pyramid of Giza).

In Tibet, one method of corpse disposal is sky burial, which involves placing the body of the deceased on high ground (a mountain) and leaving it for birds of prey to dispose of. Sometimes this is because in some religious views, birds of prey are carriers of the soul to the heavens, but at other times this simply reflects the fact that when terrain (as in Tibet) makes the ground too hard to dig, there are few trees around to burn and the local religion (Buddhism) believes that the body after death is only an empty shell, there are more practical ways of disposing of a body, such as leaving it for animals to consume.

In certain cultures, efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retardation of decay processes after the burial), as in mummification or embalming. This happens during or after a funeral ceremony. Many funeral customs exist in different cultures. In some fishing or naval communities, the body is sent into the water, in what is known as burial at sea. Several mountain villages have a tradition of hanging the coffin in woods.

A new alternative is ecological burial. This is a sequence of deep-freezing, pulverization by vibration, freeze-drying, removing metals, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass.

Cryonics is the process of cryopreservating of a body to liquid nitrogen temperature to stop the natural decay processes that occur after death. Those practicing cryonics hope that future technology will allow the legally deceased person to be restored to life when and if science is able to cure all disease, rejuvenate people to a youthful condition and repair damage from the cryopreservation process itself. As of 2007, there were over 150 people in some form of cryopreservation at one of the two largest cryonics organizations, Alcor Life Extension Foundation and the Cryonics Institute.

Space burial uses a rocket to launch the cremated remains of a body into orbit. This has been done at least 150 times.

Graves are usually grouped together in a plot of land called a cemetery or graveyard, and burials can be arranged by a funeral home, mortuary, undertaker or by a religious body such as a church or the community's burial society, a charitable or voluntary body charged with these duties.

Whole body donations, made by the donor while living (or by a family member in some cases), are an important source of human cadavers used in medical education and similar training, and in research. In the United States, these gifts, along with organ donations, are governed by the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. In addition to wishing to benefit others, individuals might choose to donate their bodies to avoid the cost of funeral arrangements; however, willed body programs often encourage families to make alternative arrangements for burial if the body is not accepted.

Grief and mourning

Grief is a multi-faceted response to loss. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, it also has a physical, cognitive, behavioural, social and philosophical dimensions. Common to human experience is the death of a loved one, be they friend, family, or other. While the terms are often used interchangeably, bereavement often refers to the state of loss, and grief to the reaction to loss. Response to loss is varied and researchers have moved away from conventional views of grief (that is, that people move through an orderly and predictable series of responses to loss) to one that considers the wide variety of responses that are influenced by personality, family, culture, and spiritual and religious beliefs and practices.

Bereavement, while a normal part of life for most people, carries a degree of risk when limited support is available. Severe reactions to loss may carry over into familial relations and cause trauma for children, spouses and any other family members. Many forms of what are termed 'mental illness' have loss as their root, but covered by many years and circumstances this often goes unnoticed. Issues of personal faith and beliefs may also face challenge, as bereaved persons reassess personal definitions in the face of great pain. While many who grieve are able to work through their loss independently, accessing additional support from bereavement professionals may promote the process of healing. Individual counseling, professional support groups or educational classes, and peer-lead support groups are primary resources available to the bereaved. In some regions local hospice agencies may be an important first contact for those seeking bereavement support.

File:RainbowBridge.jpg
An artist's rendition of the Rainbow Bridge, a mythical place where beloved pets wait in health and happiness for their owners to arrive, after they die.

Mourning is the process of and practices surrounding death related grief. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviors in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate. Customs vary between different cultures and evolve over time, though many core behaviors remain constant. Wearing dark, somber clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are also seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of grieving, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may also follow certain religious traditions for such occasions.

Mourning may also apply to the death of, or anniversary of the passing of, an important individual like a local leader, monarch, religious figure etc. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.

Philosophy, religion and mythology

Paradise

Faith in some form of afterlife is an important aspect of many people's beliefs. Such beliefs are usually manifested as part of a religion, as they pertain to phenomena beyond the ordinary experience of the natural world. For example, one aspect of Hinduism involves belief in a continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth (Samsara) and the liberation from the cycle (Moksha). Eternal return is a non-religious concept proposing an infinitely recurring cyclic universe, which relates to the subject of the afterlife and the nature of consciousness and time. Though, various evidence has been advanced in attempts to demonstrate the reality of an afterlife, these claims have never been validated. For this reason, the material or metaphysical existence of an afterlife remains a matter outside the scope of science.

Green flags, the color of Islam, mark a graveyard in southeast Afghanistan.

Many cultures have incorporated a god of death into their mythology or religion. As death, along with birth, is among the major parts of human life, these deities may often be one of the most important deities of a religion. In some religions with a single powerful deity as the source of worship, the death deity is an antagonistic deity against which the primary deity struggles.

In polytheistic religions or mythologies which have a complex system of deities governing various natural phenomena and aspects of human life, it is common to have a deity who is assigned the function of presiding over death. The inclusion of such a "departmental" deity of death in a religion's pantheon is not necessarily the same as the glorification of death which is commonly condemned by the use of the term "death-worship" in modern political rhetoric. In the theology of monotheistic religion, the one god governs both life and death. However, in practice this manifests in different rituals and traditions and varies according to a number of factors including geography, politics, traditions and the influence of other religions.

Personification of death

File:13-XIII-arcane sans nom.jpg
Death, a tarot card from the Tarot of Marseilles.
Drawing of Death bringing the cholera, in Le Petit Journal

Death has been personified as a figure or fictional character in mythology and popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling. Because the reality of death has had a substantial influence on the human psyche and the development of civilization as a whole, the personification of Death as a living, sentient entity is a concept that has existed in many societies since the beginning of recorded history. In western culture, death is usually shown as a skeletal figure carrying a large scythe, and sometimes wearing a midnight black gown with a hood.

Examples of death personified are:

  • In modern-day European-based folklore, Death is known as the "Grim Reaper" or "The grim spectre of death." This form typically wields a scythe, and is sometimes portrayed riding a white horse.
  • In the Middle Ages, Death was imagined as a decaying or mummified human corpse, later becoming the familiar skeleton in a robe.
  • Death is sometimes portrayed in fiction and occultism as Azrael, the angel of death (note that the name "Azrael" does not appear in any versions of either the Bible or the Qur'an).
  • Father Time is sometimes said to be Death.
  • A psychopomp is a spirit, deity, or other being whose task is to conduct the souls of the recently dead into the afterlife.

The number 4 in East Asia

In China, Japan, and Korea the number 4 is often associated with death because the sound of the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean words for four and death are similar (for example, the sound in Chinese is the Sino-Korean number 4 (四), whereas is the word for death (死). For this reason, hospitals and hotels often omit the 4th, 14th, 24th, floors (etc.), or substitute the number '4' with the letter 'F'. Koreans are buried under a mound standing vertical in coffins made from six planks of wood. Four of the planks represent their respective four cardinal points of the compass, while a fifth represents sky and the sixth represents earth. This relates back to the importance that the Confucian society placed upon the four cardinal points having mystical powers.

Glorification of and fascination with death

The Triumph of Death by Pieter Brueghel the Elder

Whether because of its very poetic nature or because of the great mystery it presents, or both, death is and has very often been glorified in many cultures through many different means. War, crime, revenge, martyrdom, suicide and many other forms of violence involving death are often glorified by different media, often in modern times being glorified even in spite of the attempts at

Charge of the Light Brigade. An Example of the artistic glorification of death.

depicting death meant to be de-glorifying. For example, film critic Roger Ebert mentions in a number of articles that Francis Truffaut makes the claim it's impossible to make an anti-war film, as any depiction of war ends up glorifying it. The most prevalent and permanent form of death's glorification is through artistic expression. Through song, such as Knockin' on Heaven's Door or Bullet in the Head, many artists show death through poetic analogy or even as a poetic analogy, as in the latter mentioned song. Events such as The Charge of the Light Brigade and The Battle of the Alamo have served as inspirations for artistic depictions of and myths regarding death.

Perception of glory in death is subjective and can even differ wildly from one member of a group to another. Religion plays a key role, especially in terms of expectations of an afterlife. Personal and perceptions about mode of death are also important factors. One person's martyr could be another person's waste of life.

Warfare

Scene from Book XXIV of the Iliad: Hector's corpse brought back to Troy (detail). Roman artwork (ca. 180–200 C.E.), relief from a sarcophagus, marble
Main article: War

War is a prolonged state of violent, large scale conflict involving two or more groups of people. When and how war originated is a highly controversial topic. Some think war has existed as long as humans, while others believe it began only about 5000 years ago with the rise of the first states; afterward war "spread to peaceful hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists."[10]

Often opposing leaders or governing bodies get other people to fight for them, even if those fighting have no vested interest in the issues fought over. In time it became practical for some people to have warfare as their sole occupation, either as a member of a military force or mercenary. The original cause of war is not always known. Wars may be prosecuted simultaneously in one or more different theatres. Within each theatre, there may be one or more consecutive military campaigns. Individual actions of war within a specific campaign are traditionally called battles, although this terminology is not always applied to contentions in modernity involving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone in the absence of ground troops or naval forces.

The factors leading to war are often complicated and due to a range of issues. Where disputes arise over issues such as sovereignty, territory, resources, ideology and a peaceable resolution is not sought, fails, or is thwarted, war often results.

A war may begin following an official declaration of war in the case of international war, although this has not always been observed either historically or currently. Civil wars and revolutions are not usually initiated by a formal declaration of war, but sometimes a statement about the purposes of the fighting is made. Such statements may be interpreted to be declarations of war, or at least a willingness to fight for a cause. Genocide is the attempted slaughter of an entire sect of people.

Military suicide and suicide attacks

A suicide attack occurs when an individual or group violently sacrifice their own lives for the benefit of their side. In the desperate final days of World War II, many Japanese pilots volunteered for kamikaze missions in an attempt to forestall defeat for the Empire. In Nazi Germany, Luftwaffe squadrons were formed to smash into American B-17s during daylight bombing missions, in order to delay the highly-probable Allied victory, although in this case, inspiration was primarily the Soviet and Polish taran ramming attacks, and death of the pilot was not a desired outcome. The degree to which such a pilot was engaging in a heroic, selfless action or whether they faced immense social pressure is a matter of historical debate. The Japanese also built one-man "human torpedo" suicide submarines.

However, suicide has been fairly common in warfare throughout history. Soldiers and civilians committed suicide to avoid capture and slavery (including the wave of German and Japanese suicides in the last days of World War II). Commanders committed suicide rather than accept defeat. Spies and officers have committed suicide to avoid revealing secrets under interrogation and/or torture. Behavior that could be seen as suicidal occurred often in battle. Japanese infantrymen usually fought to the last man, launched "banzai" suicide charges, and committed suicide during the Pacific island battles in World War II. In Saipan and Okinawa, civilians joined in the suicides. Suicidal attacks by pilots were common in the 20th century: the attack by U.S. torpedo planes at the Battle of Midway was very similar to a kamikaze attack.

Martyrdom

Main article: Martyr
Crucifixion of St. Peter, by Caravaggio

A martyr is a person who is put to death or endures suffering for their beliefs, principles or ideology. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom. In different belief systems, the criteria for being considered a martyr is different. In the Christian context, a martyr is an innocent person who, without seeking death, is murdered or put to death for his or her religious faith or convictions. An example is the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire. Christian martyrs sometimes decline to defend themselves at all, in what they see as an imitation of Jesus' willing sacrifice.

Islam accepts a broader view of what constitutes a martyr, including anyone who dies in the struggle between those lands under Muslim government and those areas outside Muslim rule. Generally, some seek to include suicide bombers as a "martyr" of Islam, however, this is widely disputed in mainstream Islamic thought, which argues that a martyr may not commit suicide.


Though often religious in nature, martyrdom can be applied to a secular context as well. The term is sometimes applied to those who die or are otherwise severely affected in support of a cause, such as soldiers fighting in a war, doctors fighting an epidemic, or people leading civil rights movements. Proclaiming martyrdom is a common way to draw attention to a cause and garner support.

Intentional Deaths

Suicide

Main article: Suicide

Suicide is the act of intentionally taking one's own life. The term "suicide" can also be used as a noun to refer to a person who has killed himself or herself.

Views on suicide have been influenced by cultural views on existential themes such as religion, honor, and the meaning of life. Most Western and Asian religions—the Abrahamic religions, Buddhism, Hinduism—consider suicide a dishonorable act; in the West it was regarded as a serious crime and offense against God due to religious belief in the sanctity of life. Japanese views on honor and religion led to seppuku being respected as a means to atone for mistakes or failure during the samurai era. In the twentieth century suicide in the form of self-immolation has been used as a form of protest. Self-sacrifice for others is not usually considered suicide.

The predominant view of modern medicine is that suicide is a mental health concern, associated with psychological factors such as the difficulty of coping with depression, inescapable pain or fear, or other mental disorders and pressures. Suicide is often interpreted as a "cry for help" and attention, or to express despair and the wish to escape, rather than a genuine intent to die. Most suicides (for various reasons) do not succeed on a first attempt; those who later gain a history of repetitions are significantly more at risk of eventual completion.[11] Nearly a million people worldwide die by suicide annually. While completed suicides are higher in men, women have higher rates for suicide attempts. Elderly males have the highest suicide rate, although rates for young adults have been increasing in recent years.[12]

Euthanasia

Main article: Euthanasia

Euthanasia is the practice of terminating the life of a person or animal in a painless or minimally painful way in order to prevent suffering or other undesired conditions in life. This may be voluntary or involuntary, and carried out with or without a physician. In a medical environment, it is normally carried out by oral, intravenous or intramuscularly drug administration.

Laws around the world vary greatly with regard to euthanasia and are subject to change as people's values shift and better palliative care or treatments become available. It is legal in some nations, while in others it may be criminalized. Due to the gravity of the issue, strict restrictions and proceedings are enforced regardless of legal status. Euthanasia is a controversial issue because of conflicting moral feelings both within a person's own beliefs and between different cultures, ethnicities, religions and other groups. The subject is explored by the mass media, authors, film makers and philosophers, and is the source of ongoing debate and emotion.

Sacrifices

Sacrifice ("to make sacred") includes the practice of offering the lives of animals or people to the gods, as an act of propitiation or worship. The practice of sacrifice is found in the oldest human records, and the archaeological record finds corpses, both animal and human, that show marks of having been sacrificed and have been dated to long before any records. Human sacrifice was practiced in many ancient cultures. The practice has varied between different civilizations, with some like the Aztecs being notorious for their ritual killings, while others have looked down on the practice. Victims ranging from prisoners to infants to virgins were killed to please their gods, suffering such fates as burning, beheading and being buried alive.

Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as practised by many religions as a means of appeasing a god or spiritual being, changing the course of nature or divining the future. Animal sacrifice has occurred in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans to the Yoruba. Over time human and animal sacrifices have become less common in the world, such that modern sacrifices are rare. Most religions condemn the practice of human sacrifices, and present day laws generally treat them as a criminal matter. Nonetheless traditional sacrifice rituals are still seen in less developed areas of the world where traditional beliefs and superstitions linger, including the sacrifice of human beings.

Murder

Main article: Murder

Murder is the illegal killing of another person. Murder has various degrees of intention and stances before the law. Each of these different stances carries different penalties and social stigmas.

Legal aspects

Settlement of legal entity

Aside from the physical disposition of the corpse, the estate of a person must be settled. This includes all of the person's legal rights and obligations, such as assets and debts. Depending on the jurisdiction, laws or a will may determine the final disposition of the estate. A legal process, such as probate, will guide these proceedings.

Capital punishment

Main article: Capital punishment
Etching of a hanging by Goya.

Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the execution of a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offences. Historically, the execution of criminals and political opponents was used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime and to suppress political dissent. Among democratic countries around the world, all European (except Belarus) and Latin American states, many Pacific Area states (including Australia, New Zealand and Timor Leste), and Canada have abolished capital punishment, while the United States, Guatemala, and most of the Caribbean as well as some democracies in Asia (e.g., Japan and India) and Africa (e.g., Botswana and Zambia) retain it. Among nondemocratic countries, the use of the death penalty is common but not universal.

In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as punishment for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.[13]

Capital punishment is a very contentious issue. Supporters of capital punishment argue that it deters crime, prevents recidivism, and is an appropriate form of punishment for the crime of murder. Opponents of capital punishment argue that it does not deter criminals more than life imprisonment, violates human rights, leads to executions of some who are wrongfully convicted, and discriminates against minorities and the poor.

Notes

  1. DeBano, L.F., D.G. Neary, P.F. Ffolliot (1998) Fire’s Effects on Ecosystems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
  2. Diamond, Jared (1999). "Up to the Starting Line", Guns, Germs, and Steel. W. W. Norton, 43-44. ISBN 0-393-31755-2. 
  3. 3.0 3.1 Newman, Mark. "A Mathematical Model for Mass Extinction." Cornell University. May 20 1994. URL accessed July 30 2006.
  4. Raup, David M. Extinction: Bad Genes or Bad Luck? W.W. Norton and Company. New York. 1991. pp.3-6 ISBN 978-0393309270
  5. Species disappearing at an alarming rate, report says. MSNBC. URL accessed July 26 2006.
  6. Wilson, E.O., The Future of Life (2002) (ISBN 0-679-76811-4). See also: Leakey, Richard. The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind (ISBN 0-385-46809-1 ).
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). Prentice Hall.
  8. World Health Organization (WHO). Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104 - Global and regional incidence. March 2006, Retrieved on 6 October 2006.
  9. SJ Olshanksy et al (2006). Longevity dividend: What should we be doing to prepare for the unprecedented aging of humanity?. The Scientist 20: 28-36.
  10. Otterbein, Keith, 2004, How War Began. Texas A&M University Press.
  11. Shaffer, D.J. (September 1988). The Epidemiology of Teen Suicide: An Examination of Risk Factors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 49 (supp.): 36–41. PMID 3047106.
  12. How can suicide be prevented? (2005-09-09). Retrieved 2007-04-13.
  13. Shot at Dawn, campaign for pardons for British and Commonwealth soldiers executed in World War I. Shot at Dawn Pardons Campaign. Retrieved 2006-07-20.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Baden, Michael. Unnatural Death: Confessions of a Medical Examiner , Ballantine Books (1990). ISBN 0804105995
  • Becker, Ernest. The Denial of Death, Free Press (1997). ISBN 0684832402
  • Cook, C (2006). Death in Ancient China: The Tale of One Man's Journey. Brill Publishers. ISBN 9004153128. 
  • Despelder, Lynne Ann. The Last Dance: Encountering Death and Dying , McGraw Hill (2004). ISBN 0072920963
  • Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth. On Death and Dying, Scribner (1997). ISBN 0684842238
  • Maloney, George, A., S.J. (1980) The Everlasting Now: Meditations on the mysteries of life and death as they touch us in our daily lives. ISBN 0877932018
  • Roach, Mary. Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers, W.W. Norton & Company (2004). ISBN 0393324826

External links

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