Confucius

From New World Encyclopedia


Engraving of Confucius
Confucius
Chinese family name
Ancestral name:
Zi¹
(Pinyin: Zǐ)
Chinese family name
Clan name:
Kong
(Pinyin: Kǒng)
Chinese given name
Given name:
Qiu
(Pinyin: Qiū)
Chinese courtesy name
Courtesy name:
Zhongni
(Pinyin: Zhòngní)
Posthumous name:
The Ultimate Sage
Master of Yore²
(Ch: )
(Py: Zhìshèng Xiānshī)
Style
(manner of address):
Master Kong³
less frequently
Py: Kǒngzǐ,
less fr. Kǒngfūzǐ;
Wade-Giles: K'ung-tzu,
less fr. K'ung Fu-tzu
1The Chinese word for the ancestral name of
Confucius, should not be confused with the word
"master" as used in the style of Confucius "Master
Kong". These are two different words written
with the same character in Chinese. Zi was the
surname of the ruling family of Shang.
2 Posthumous name since 1530C.E. Between 1307C.E.
and 1530C.E., his posthumous name was: "The Lord
of Culture Ultimate Sage and Great
Accomplisher" which is
the name on his tomb.
3 Romanised as "Confucius".

Confucius, transliterated Kong Fuzi or K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong", traditionally September 28, 551 B.C.E. – 479 B.C.E.) was a famous Chinese thinker and social philosopher, whose teachings and philosophy have deeply influenced East Asian life and thought. His legacy informs what became known as Confucianism which some regard as a philosophical outlook on life, others as a religion. Revived interests in aspects of his thought may be referred to as neo-Confucianism, which is said to be the driving force behind the economic empowerment of several East Asian states.

His philosophy emphasised personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism or Daoism during the Han Dynasty. Confucius's thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism. Confucianism also spread further afield, such as to Korea and to Japan. It was introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who was the first to Latinise the name as "Confucius".

His teachings are known primarily through the Analects of Confucius, a short collection of his discussions with his disciples, which was compiled posthumously. Alongside the Buddha, Socrates, Jesus, Mahavira from the ancient world, Confucius has been one of the most influential thinkers, and his whole teaching called for humane conduct. Asked to define 'humaneness', he said 'love your fellow man' (Analects, 12: 22). Scholars point out that Confucius was active during what has been called the Axial Age. Some theologians suggest that at this time, the foundations of moral and ethical values were being made known to humanity through the great sages as the human race entered a more inter-connected phase of providential development.

Personal life and family

At 30, I took my stand;
At 40, I no longer had doubts;
At 50, I knew the will of the heavens;
At 60, my ear was attuned;
At 70, I follow all the desires of my heart without breaking any rule.
(Analects, translation by James Legge (Book 2 v 4)

According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E. (during the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical movement) in the city of Qufu, which was located in the Chinese State of Lu (now part of present-day Shandong Province and culturally and geographically close to the royal mansion of Zhou). It was through this connection that Confucius visited Laozi (Lao Tzu), employed as an archivist in the Zhou library. Confucius was seeking advice on the proper performance of rites. Laozi rebuked him sternly, stating that without the correct attitude of non-attachment, all ritual action is pointless. The tale ends with Confucius lamenting the difficulty of following Laozi’s wisdom: "When it comes to the dragon, I have no means of knowing how it rides the wind and the clouds and ascends into heaven. Today I have seen Lao-tzu who really is like unto a dragon." (Graham 1998, 23).

Confucius was born into a deposed noble family which had recently fled from the State of Song. His father had been a magistrate and a warrior. Stories of portents of future significance surround his birth, as they do around that of Buddha, Krishna, Jesus and other great religious figures. A Unicorn appeared with a piece of jade in its mouth and announced that a child as 'pure as crystal would be born' who would become as a 'king without a kingdom' {[1].

The Records of the Grand Historian, compiled some 400 years later, indicate that Confucius was conceived out of wedlock. His father was seventy, and his mother only fifteen at his birth. His father died when he was three, and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy links him to the growing class of Shì, a class between the old nobility and the common people. This class later became the prominent class of literati because of the cultural and intellectual skills they shared. Some have claimed a Duke of Chou as one of Confucius' ancestors.

As a child, he was said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table. As a young man, he was a minor administrative manager in the State of Lu and rose to the position of Justice Minister. After several years he resigned because he disapproved of the politics of his Prince. Around age fifty, seeing no way to improve the government, he gave up his political career in Lu, and began a 12-year journey around China. He spent some time in Wei and may have become the world's first professional teacher during this period of travel. He sought the "Way", which for him was the answers to such questions as how should rulers rule, and how should people behave in society, towards each other and towards their rulers. Confucius hated disorder and disunity and wanted to find overcome the inter-family feuds that characterized the Warring States Period. He admired King Ch‘eng, founder of the Chou dynasty and often said that what he taught was not new but a revival of ancient ideas. He thus valued continuity and wanted to sustain China's ancient traditions (see Analects, 7: 1). He tried unsuccessfully to convince many different rulers of his political beliefs and to push them into reality. When he was about 60 year old, he returned home and spent the last years of his life teaching an increasing number of disciples by sharing his experiences with them and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of books called the Six Classics, the Odes, the Book, the Book of Change, the Book of Rites, The Book of Music and the Spring and Autumn Annals.

According to "The sayings of Confucius", the state of Lu was doing economically very well because of Confucius, that its neighbor the state of Qi was worried that it will become the supreme state and Qi will be the first to be conquered. They then decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending one hundred horses and eighty beauties to the King of Lu.

The King of Lu then indulged himself in pleasure seeking and did not attend to any official duties for three days. At the sacrificial rites he did not give the counselors the meat in accordance with the rites. By then, Confucius had done all he could to bring Lu to its height and decided to leave.

Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments. They were honored with the rank of a marquis thirty-five times since Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke forty-two times from the Tang Dynasty to 1935. One of the most common titles is Duke Yansheng, which means "overflowing with sainthood."

Today, there are thousands of reputed descendants of Confucius. The main lineage fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu to Taiwan during the Chinese Civil War. The latest head of the household is K'ung Te-ch'eng who is of the 77th generation and a professor at National Taiwan University. The Republic of China appointed him President of the Examination Yuan. Kung married Sun Qifang, the great-granddaughter of the Qing dynasty scholar-official and first president of Beijing University Sun Jianai, whose Shouxian, Anhui, family created one of the first business combines in modern-day China, which included the largest flour mill in Asia, the Fou Foong Flour Company. The Kongs are related by marriage to a number of prominent Confucian families, among them that of the Song Dynasty prime minister and martyr Wen Tianxiang.

Teachings

In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". This may have been a tactic to gain support for his ideas among people for whom honoring tradition was sacrosanct. He put the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and the Chinese character for study opens the text. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master. Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world, mostly through the old scriptures and by relating past political events (like the Annals) or past feelings of common people (like the Book of Odes).

In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven that could unify the "world" (which for him was China) and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Therefore, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and maybe twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own:

  • rulers to be chosen on merit, not parentage, rulers who were devoted to their people, and rulers who reached for perfection. Such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules. Rulers should lead by example, not by coercion or by enforcing their edicts with threats.
  • Thus, "Just desire the good yourself and the common people will be good" (12: 19).
  • "Guide them by virtue … and they will reform themselves", he said (11: 3).
  • Coercion never works: "If a man is correct in his own person [others] … will obey without orders being given". If he is not correct, "there will be no obedience even though orders are given" (13: 6).

Above all, he wanted order in society. He believed that a polite society, one that consisted of true gentlemen and women, would also be an orderly one. Universal politeness would banish hatred and conflict. He therefore taught that everyone should cultivate the characteristics of a chun-tzu (gentleperson). This involves inner as well as external character. Basically, a chun-tzu is compassionate, humane and benevolent (Ren). The concept of benevolence is central to Confucius' teaching, and can best be understood as being humane.

  • True benevelonce must be practiced as a good in itself, not in order to attract a reward ((4: 3 - 4). Benevolence is love of others (12: 22).
  • When a Prince is benevolent, '"When a Prince is benevolent, everyone will be benevolent" (Mencius, Bk 4: 5).

Confucius believed that society functions best when all members know, and perform their appropriate role. The analogy of an orchestra has often been cited - only when all instruments play in tune and at the right moment is music created. Also, if a drum tries to sound (do the job of) a horn, discord follows. A gentle person would be a rounded person, with an appreciation of music, art, literature and of history. Such people, by filling the world with goodness, will make society better for everyone.

Role of the Family

Confucius believed that the family provides a model for the ideal functioning of society. Just as in the family, authority is exerfcised with love and responsibility, so it should be exercised within the state. He spoke of four types of relationships, that between siblings, that between children and parents, that between friends and that between ruler and subjects. He championed strong familial loyalty, respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself". Just as authority in the family is exercised by the father, that is, by a single person, so state-authority should be centralized. Above all, Confucius wanted unity.

Ethics

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius, one of the hardest to understand from a Western point of view, may have been the superiority of exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His ethics may be considered one of the greatest virtue ethics]. This kind of "indirect" way to achieve a goal is used widely in his teachings by way of allusions, innuendo, and even tautology. This is why his teachings need to be examined and put into context for access by Westerners. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses. (Analects 10:11).

The anecdote is not long but it is of paramount importance. In his time horses were perhaps 10 times more expensive than stablemen. By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated his greatest priority: human beings. Thus, according to many Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius's teaching can be considered a Chinese variant of humanism.


The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts:

While Confucius grew up, referred to the three aspects of life: sacrificing to the gods, social and political institutions, and daily behavior. It was believed that originated from the heavens. Confucius argued that it flowed not from heaven but from humanity. He redefined to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society. , to Confucius, became every action by a person aiming to meet his surface desires. These can be either good or bad. Generally attempts to obtain short term pleasure are bad while those, which in the long term try to make one's life better, are generally good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time.

To Confucius, was the origin of . can best be translated as righteousness. While doing things because of , one's own self-interest was not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one bases one's life upon following . This means that rather than pursuing one's own selfish interests, one should do what is right and moral. It is doing the right thing for the right reason. is based upon reciprocity. An example of living by is how one must mourn one's father and mother for three years after their death. Since they took care of the child for the first three years of one's life, one must reciprocate by living in mourning for three years. has to be internalized so that it becomes part of our sub-conscious, an apect of our character.

Just as flows out of , so flows out of rén. Ren can best be translated as kindness. His moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To live by rén was even better than living by the rules of . To live by rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: he argued that one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat you. Virtue under Confucius is based upon harmony with other people. He said, 'treat others as you want them to treat you! (golden rule; 4: 15).

Politics

Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through "rites" and people's natural morality, rather than using bribery and force. He explained that this in one of the most important analects: 1. "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good." (11: 3). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

While he supported the idea of the all-powerful Emperor as the single source of authority, probably because of the chaotic state of China at his time, his philosophies contained a number of elements to limit the power of the rulers. He argued for according language with truth; thus honesty was of the most paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. In discussing the relationship between a subject and his king (or a son and his father), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action. This was built upon by his disciple Mencius to argue that if the king was not acting like a king, he would lose the Mandate of Heaven and be overthrown. Therefore, tyrannicide is justified because a tyrant is more a thief than a king. Attempted tyrannicide, however, is not justified.

Was Confucius a Philospher or a Religious Sage?

The problem with this question, much discussed in Western literature, is that it imposes Western distinctions onto Chinese society. In Western thought, since the Enlightenment, religion is assumed to deal with the internal, spiritual realm and to be mainly concerned with what happens to us when we die. Chinese society at that time did not make such a rigid distinction; earth mirrored the heavens. Kings ruled when they enjoyed the Mandate of Heaven. Events in heaven influence those on earth, and vice versa. By keeping ancestors content in the spirit world, life on earth flourishes. Confucius was primarilly interested in individual conduct and in social order and this did not say much about 'religion' as Westerners understand it. His approach was to honor the Gods and the ancestors while concerning himself mainly with the living. Indeed, once asked 'how the spirits of the dead and the gods should be served' he replied, 'You are not able even to serve man. How can you serve the spirits?'. 'May I ask about death?' 'You do not understand even life. How can you understand death'" (11: 12). He also said that 'To keep one's distance from the gods and spirits while showing them reverence can be called wisdom (6: 22). However, he ascribed a heavenly origin to his teaching; "heaven is the author of the virtue within me", he said (7: 23). Also, it is our destiny that determines our status on earth. Although finding our station in life and faithfully fulfilling the duties associated with that station (a worker should not try to be a manager) is central to his views, Confucius also believed that it is a duty to strive towards perfection. All have the potential for moral growth, to cultivate moral characters. Such cultivation, too, is humanly possible: "I have not come across a man whose strength proves insufficient for the task [of being benevolent] (4: 6). This goal has a transcenent dimension. Confucius accepted the common Chinese notion of the Dao but avoided any definition; for him Dao represented the natural state of the Universe, which was order and not chaos, thus order can be achieved; "Is benevolence really so far away? If we really wished for it, it would come" , he said (7: 30). Perhaps Confucius was both a philosopher and a religious sage. Certainly, his aim was for a utopian society full of benevolence, harmony and love. Fighting was an activity in which humans, who are different from animals, shouldm not engage.

Confucius and Education

Confucius's teachings were later turned into a corps de doctrine by his numerous disciples and followers. In the centuries after his death, Mencius and Xun Zi both compiled texts, and in time, a philosophy was elaborated, which is known in the West as Confucianism. When the Civil Service examination was introduced, Confucius' thought was the main subject. Although Confucius spoke about discovering ones' station, he was a strong advocate of education and believed that education could produce better people. People do not have to assume that what others expect them to do limits their capabilities. You might be born poor in a farming community that expects you to become a farmer, but through education you might discover that your ral station is as a Civil Servant. The Civil Service was a meritocracy - anyone who passed the examination could enter, however humble their birth. It has been pointed out that under Maoism, communist China retains aspects of Confucius' legacy. Maoism also tries to transform this world by applying Utopian ideals, believes that people can be reformed, contends that education wil produce a class-less society and posits the need for a strong central government.

Names

Confucius, illustrated in Myths & Legends of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner
  • The Jesuits, while translating Chinese books into Western languages, translated the character for the Sages' name as Confucius. This Latinised form has since been commonly used in Western countries.
  • In systematic Romanisations:
    • Kǒng Fūzǐ (or Kǒng fū zǐ) in pinyin.
    • K'ung fu-tze in Wade-Giles (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze).
      • Fūzǐ means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just "Master Kong", or Confucius, even in modern days.
      • The character 'fu' is optional, so he is commonly also known as Kong Zi.
  • His actual name was Kǒng Qiū. Kǒng is a common family name in China.
  • His courtesy name was Zhòng Ní.
  • In 1 C.E. (first year of the Yuanshi period of the Han Dynasty), he was given his first posthumous name: Lord Bāochéngxūan, which means "Laudably Declarable Lord Ni."
  • His most popular posthumous names are
    • Zhìshèngxiānshī, meaning "The Former Teacher who Arrived at Sagehood" (comes from 1530C.E., the ninth year of the Jianing period of the Ming Dynasty);
    • Zhìshèng, "the Greatest Sage";
    • Xiānshī, "the First Teacher".
  • He is also commonly known as Wànshìshībiǎo, "the Model Teacher of a Myriad Ages" in Taiwan.


Disciples

File:PICT2367.JPG
Popular image of Confucius as an object of veneration, Thian Hock Keng temple, Singapore.


Confucius's disciples and only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. While relying heavily on Confucius's ethico-political system, two of his most famous disciples emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. Mencius articulated the infinite goodness inherent in humanity, while Xun Zi underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought.

Confucius as a Cultic Figure

Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his hometown, became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many Chinese people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In China, there are many temples where representations of Buddha, Lao Zi and Confucius are found together. There are many Temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies. Venration of Confucius dates from around about 241B.C.E., when sacrifices to his spirit were offered at the University in Biyong. The founder of the Han dynasty, Han Gaozu (r. 206-195 B.C.E.), offered a 'Great Sacrifice to the spirit of Confucius at his tomb in Qufu'. The first state temple dedicated to him was built between 420 and 479B.C.E. The main temple in Bejing, built in 1302, has been repaired and rebuilt many times [2]. The main rituals associated with Confucianism were a formalization of Confucius' stress on protocol and politeness, thus rituals associated with everyday life and special occassions were codified into a normative system.

See also

Further reading

  • Confucius. (1997). Lun yu, (In English The Analects of Confucius). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York : W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393040194
  • Confucius. (2001). "The Analects". Translated by E. Slingerland. In P. Ivanhoe, & B. Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. New York: Seven Bridges Press. (Original work published c. 551–479 B.C.E.). ISBN 1889119091.
  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia of Religion (Vol. C, pp 1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference USA.
  • Herrlee Glessner Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong, Chicago: University of chicago Press, 1971 ISBN 0226120309
  • Lau, D C Analects, NY: Penguin, 1979; Mineola, NY Dover ed 1995 0486284840
  • Lau, D C Mencius, NY: Penguin, 2005 ISBN 014044971X
  • Mengzi (2001). Mengzi Translation by B. Van Norden. In P. Ivanhoe & B. Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. New York: Seven Bridges Press. ISBN 1889119091.
  • Wu, J. (1995a). "Confucius". In I. McGreal (ed.), Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam (pp 3–8). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062700855
  • Wu. J. (1995b) "Mencius". In I. McGreal (ed.), Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam (pp 27–30). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062700855

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