Difference between revisions of "Cameroon" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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{{Infobox Country or territory
 
{{Infobox Country or territory
 
|native_name              = {{lang|fr|''République du Cameroun''}}
 
|native_name              = {{lang|fr|''République du Cameroun''}}
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| symbol_type            = Emblem  
 
| symbol_type            = Emblem  
 
|image_map                = LocationCameroon.svg
 
|image_map                = LocationCameroon.svg
|national_motto          = ''"Paix - Travail - Patrie"''{{spaces|2}}<small>([[French language|French]])<br/>"Peace - Work - Fatherland"
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|national_motto          = ''"Paix - Travail - Patrie"''{{spaces|2}}<small>(French)<br/>"Peace - Work - Fatherland"
|national_anthem          = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">''[[O Cameroon, Cradle of our Forefathers|Ô Cameroun, Berceau de nos Ancêtres]]''{{spaces|2}}<small>(French)<br/>''O Cameroon, Cradle of our Forefathers''&nbsp;<sup>1</sup></small></span>
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|national_anthem          = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">''Ô Cameroun, Berceau de nos  
|official_languages      = [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]]
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Ancêtres''{{spaces|2}}<small>(French)<br/>''O Cameroon, Cradle of our Forefathers''&nbsp;<sup>1</sup></small></span>
|capital                  = [[Yaoundé]]
+
|official_languages      = French, English
 +
|capital                  = Yaoundé
 
|latd=3 |latm=52 |latNS=N |longd=11 |longm=31 |longEW=E <!--Google Maps—>
 
|latd=3 |latm=52 |latNS=N |longd=11 |longm=31 |longEW=E <!--Google Maps—>
|largest_city            = [[Douala]]
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|largest_city            = Douala
|government_type          = [[Republic]]
+
|government_type          = Republic
|leader_title1            = [[Heads of state of Cameroon|President]]
+
|leader_title1            = President
|leader_name1            = [[Paul Biya]]
+
|leader_name1            = Paul Biya
|leader_title2            = [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|Prime Minister]]
+
|leader_title2            = Prime Minister
|leader_name2            = [[Ephraïm Inoni]]
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|leader_name2            = Ephraïm Inoni
 
|area_rank                = 53rd <!--Demographic Yearbook 1.—>
 
|area_rank                = 53rd <!--Demographic Yearbook 1.—>
 
|area_magnitude          = 1 E11
 
|area_magnitude          = 1 E11
 
|area                    = 475,442  
 
|area                    = 475,442  
|areami²                  = 183,568 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]—>
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|areami²                  = 183,568 <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM—>
 
|percent_water            = 1.3 <!--CIA World Factbook—>
 
|percent_water            = 1.3 <!--CIA World Factbook—>
 
|population_estimate      = 17,795,000 <!--UN World Population Prospects—>
 
|population_estimate      = 17,795,000 <!--UN World Population Prospects—>
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|population_census_year  = 2003
 
|population_census_year  = 2003
 
|population_density      = 37        <!--UN World Population Prospects—>
 
|population_density      = 37        <!--UN World Population Prospects—>
|population_densitymi²    = 97      <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]—>
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|population_densitymi²    = 97      <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM—>
 
|population_density_rank  = 167th      <!--UN World Population Prospects—>
 
|population_density_rank  = 167th      <!--UN World Population Prospects—>
 
|GDP_PPP                  = $43.196 billion <!--International Monetary Fund—>
 
|GDP_PPP                  = $43.196 billion <!--International Monetary Fund—>
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita      = $2,421          <!--International Monetary Fund—>
 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita      = $2,421          <!--International Monetary Fund—>
 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 130th          <!--International Monetary Fund—>
 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 130th          <!--International Monetary Fund—>
|sovereignty_type        = [[Independence]]
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|sovereignty_type        = Independence
|sovereignty_note        = from [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
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|sovereignty_note        = from France and the UK
 
|established_event1      = Date
 
|established_event1      = Date
|established_date1        = [[1 January]] [[1960]], [[1 October]] [[1961]]
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|established_date1        = 1 January 1960, 1 October 1961
 
|HDI                      = 0.506
 
|HDI                      = 0.506
 
|HDI_rank                = 144th
 
|HDI_rank                = 144th
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|Gini_year                = 2001
 
|Gini_year                = 2001
 
|Gini_category            = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font>
 
|Gini_category            = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font>
|currency                = [[CFA franc]]
+
|currency                = CFA franc
 
|currency_code            = XAF
 
|currency_code            = XAF
 
|country_code            =  
 
|country_code            =  
|time_zone                = [[West Africa Time|WAT]]
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|time_zone                = WAT
 
|utc_offset              = +1
 
|utc_offset              = +1
 
|time_zone_DST            = not observed
 
|time_zone_DST            = not observed
 
|utc_offset_DST          = +1
 
|utc_offset_DST          = +1
|cctld                    = [[.cm]]
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|cctld                    = .cm
 
|calling_code            = 237
 
|calling_code            = 237
|footnote1                = These are the titles as given in the ''Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon'', Article X. The French version of the song is sometimes called "Chant de Ralliement", as in ''National Anthems of the World'', and the English version "O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers", as in DeLancey and DeLancey 61.
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|footnote1                = These are the titles as given in the ''Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon'', Article X. The French version of the song is sometimes called "Chant de Ralliement," as in ''National Anthems of the World'', and the English version "O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers," as in DeLancey and DeLancey 61.
 
}}
 
}}
The '''Republic of Cameroon''' is a [[unitary state|unitary republic]] of central and western [[Africa]]. It borders [[Nigeria]] to the west; [[Chad]] to the northeast; the [[Central African Republic]] to the east; and [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], and the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the [[Bight of Bonny]], part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The country is called "[[Tourism in Cameroon|Africa in miniature]]" for its geological and cultural diversity. Natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, and savannas. The highest point is [[Mount Cameroon]] in the southwest, and the largest cities are [[Douala]], [[Yaoundé]], and [[Garoua]]. Cameroon is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. The country is well known for its native styles of music, particularly [[makossa]] and [[bikutsi]], and for its successful [[Cameroon national football team|national football team]]. English and French are the official languages.
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The '''Republic of Cameroon''' is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. The country is called "Africa in miniature" for its geological and cultural diversity. Natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, and savannas. Cameroon is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. The country is well known for its native styles of music, particularly makossa and bikutsi, and for its successful national football team.  
  
Early inhabitants of the territory included the [[Sao civilisation]] around [[Lake Chad]] and the [[Baka (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the area ''Rio dos Camarões'' ("River of Prawns"), the name from which ''Cameroon'' derives. [[Fula people|Fulani]] soldiers founded the [[Adamawa Emirate]] in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and [[fon (Cameroon)|fondoms]]. Cameroon became a [[German Empire|German]] [[colonialism|colony]] in 1884. After World War I, the territory was divided between [[French Third Republic|France]] and [[British Empire|Britain]] as [[League of Nations mandate]]s. The [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon|Union des Populations du Cameroun]] political party advocated independence but was outlawed in the 1950s. It waged war on French and Cameroonian forces until 1971. In 1960, French [[Cameroun]] became independent as the Republic of Cameroun under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]]. The [[Southern Cameroons|southern part]] of British [[Cameroons]] merged with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The country was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.
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Compared with other African countries, Cameroon enjoys political and social stability. This has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, railways, and large petroleum and timber industries. Nevertheless, large numbers of Cameroonians live in poverty as subsistence farmers. Power lies firmly in the hands of the president, Paul Biya, and his Cameroon People's Democratic Movement party, and corruption is widespread. The Anglophone community has grown increasingly alienated from the government, and Anglophone politicians have called for greater decentralisation and even the secession of the former British-governed territories.
  
Compared with other African countries, Cameroon enjoys political and social stability. This has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, railways, and large petroleum and timber industries. Nevertheless, large numbers of Cameroonians live in poverty as subsistence farmers. Power lies firmly in the hands of the president, [[Paul Biya]], and his [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] party, and [[political corruption|corruption]] is widespread. The [[Anglophone Cameroonian|Anglophone]] community has grown increasingly alienated from the government, and Anglophone politicians have called for greater decentralisation and even the secession of the former British-governed territories.
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==History==
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[[Image:Merrick at Isubu funeral.jpg|thumb|left|Joseph Merrick (shown here attending an Isubu funeral in 1845) was a Jamaican Baptist missionary who established a church among the Isubu of the coast.]]
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The territory of present day Cameroon was first settled during the Neolithic. The longest continuous inhabitants are the Pygmy groups such as the Baka.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 2.</ref> The Sao culture arose around Lake Chad c. AD 500 and gave way to the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Kingdoms, fondoms, and chiefdoms arose in the west.
  
==History==
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Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake Chad and the Baka hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the fifteenth century and named the area ''Rio dos Camarões'' ("River of Prawns"), the name from which ''Cameroon'' derives. Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north in the nineteenth century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms. Cameroon became a German colony in 1884. After [[World War I]], the territory was divided between [[France]] and [[Britain]] as [[League of Nations]] mandates. The Union des Populations du Cameroun political party advocated independence but was outlawed in the 1950s. It waged war on French and Cameroonian forces until 1971. In 1960, French Cameroun became independent as the Republic of Cameroun under President Ahmadou Ahidjo. The southern part of British Cameroons merged with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The country was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.
{{main|History of Cameroon}}
 
[[Image:Merrick at Isubu funeral.jpg|thumb|left|[[Joseph Merrick (missionary)|Joseph Merrick]] (shown here attending an [[Isubu]] funeral in 1845) was a Jamaican Baptist missionary who established a church among the Isubu of the coast.]]
 
The territory of present day Cameroon was first settled during the [[Neolithic]]. The longest continuous inhabitants are the [[Pygmies|Pygmy]] groups such as the [[Baka (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]].<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 2.</ref> The [[Sao civilisation|Sao]] culture arose around [[Lake Chad]] c. AD 500 and gave way to the [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]]. Kingdoms, [[fon (Cameroon)|fondoms]], and chiefdoms arose in the west.
 
  
Portuguese sailors reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of prawns and crayfish in the [[Wouri River]] and named it {{lang|pt|''Rio dos Camarões''}}, Portuguese for "River of Prawns", and the phrase from which ''Cameroon'' is derived. Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian [[missionary|missionaries]] pushed inland. In the early 19th century, [[Modibo Adama]] led [[Fula people|Fulani]] soldiers on a [[jihad]] in the north against non-Muslim and partially Muslim peoples and established the [[Adamawa Emirate]]. Settled peoples who fled the Fulani caused a major redistribution of population.<ref>Fanso 84.</ref>
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Portuguese sailors reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of prawns and crayfish in the Wouri River and named it {{lang|pt|''Rio dos Camarões''}}, Portuguese for "River of Prawns," and the phrase from which ''Cameroon'' is derived. Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian missionaries pushed inland. In the early 19th century, Modibo Adama led Fulani soldiers on a jihad in the north against non-Muslim and partially Muslim peoples and established the Adamawa Emirate. Settled peoples who fled the Fulani caused a major redistribution of population.<ref>Fanso 84.</ref>
  
The [[German Empire]] claimed the territory as the [[colonialism|colony]] of [[Kamerun]] in 1884 and began a steady push inland. They initiated projects to improve the colony's infrastructure, relying on a harsh system of [[unfree labour|forced labour]].<ref name="DeLancey 125">DeLancey and DeLancey 125.</ref> With the defeat of Germany in [[World War I]], Kamerun became a [[League of Nations mandate]] territory and was split into [[French Third Republic|French]] {{lang|fr|[[Cameroun]]}} and [[British Empire|British]] [[Cameroons]] in 1919. The French carefully integrated the economy of Cameroun with that of France<ref name="DeLancey 5">DeLancey and DeLancey 5.</ref> and improved the infrastructure with capital investments, skilled workers, and continued forced labour.<ref name="DeLancey 125"/> The British administered their territory from neighbouring [[Nigeria]]. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony". Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour but angering indigenous peoples.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 4.</ref> The League of Nations mandates were converted into [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|United Nations Trusteeships]] in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroun.<ref name="DeLancey 5"/> France outlawed the most radical political party, the [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon|Union des Populations du Cameroun]] (UPC), on [[13 July]] [[1955]]. This prompted a long guerrilla war and the assassination of the party's leader, [[Ruben Um Nyobé]].<ref name="DeLancey 6">DeLancey and DeLancey 6.</ref> In British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroun or join Nigeria.
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The German Empire claimed the territory as the colony of Kamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland. They initiated projects to improve the colony's infrastructure, relying on a harsh system of forced labour.<ref name="DeLancey 125">DeLancey and DeLancey 125.</ref> With the defeat of Germany in World War I, Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was split into French {{lang|fr|Cameroun}} and British Cameroons in 1919. The French carefully integrated the economy of Cameroun with that of France<ref name="DeLancey 5">DeLancey and DeLancey 5.</ref> and improved the infrastructure with capital investments, skilled workers, and continued forced labour.<ref name="DeLancey 125"/> The British administered their territory from neighbouring Nigeria. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony." Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour but angering indigenous peoples.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 4.</ref> The League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroun.<ref name="DeLancey 5"/> France outlawed the most radical political party, the Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC), on 13 July 1955. This prompted a long guerrilla war and the assassination of the party's leader, Ruben Um Nyobé.<ref name="DeLancey 6">DeLancey and DeLancey 6.</ref> In British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroun or join Nigeria.
  
[[Image:DF-SC-83-08609.jpg|thumb|right|Ahmadou Ahidjo arrives at [[Washington, D.C.]], in July 1982.]]
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On January 1, 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President Ahmadou Ahidjo, and on 1 October 1961, the formerly-British Southern Cameroons united with its neighbour to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC and fears of ethnic conflict to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.<ref name="DeLancey 6"/> His political party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966 and in 1972, the federal system of government was abolished in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from Yaoundé.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 19.</ref> Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of planned liberalism, prioritising cash crops and petroleum exploitation. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 7.</ref>
On [[1 January]] [[1960]], French Cameroun gained independence from France under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]], and on [[1 October]] [[1961]], the formerly-British [[Southern Cameroons]] united with its neighbour to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC and fears of ethnic conflict to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.<ref name="DeLancey 6"/> His political party, the [[Cameroon National Union]] (CNU), became the sole legal political party on [[1 September]] [[1966]] and in 1972, the [[federation|federal system of government]] was abolished in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from [[Yaoundé]].<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 19.</ref> Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of [[planned liberalism]], prioritising cash crops and petroleum exploitation. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 7.</ref>
 
  
Ahidjo stepped down on [[4 November]] [[1982]] and left power to his constitutional successor, [[Paul Biya]]. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed [[Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt|coup d'état]] nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 8.</ref> An [[economic crisis of Cameroon|economic crisis]] took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of  international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of [[political corruption|corruption]], mismanagement, and [[cronyism]]. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and [[privatization|privatised]] industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, [[Anglophone Cameroonian|Anglophone]] pressure groups called for greater autonomy, with some advocating complete secession as the Republic of [[Ambazonia]].<ref name="DeLancey 9">DeLancey and DeLancey 9.</ref>
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Ahidjo stepped down on November 4, 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, Paul Biya. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed coup d'état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 8.</ref> An economic crisis took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of  international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and cronyism. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and privatised industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, Anglophone pressure groups called for greater autonomy, with some advocating complete secession as the Republic of Ambazonia.<ref name="DeLancey 9">DeLancey and DeLancey 9.</ref>
  
 
==Politics and government==
 
==Politics and government==
{{main|Politics of Cameroon}}
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[[Image:PaulBya Lula April 10 2005.jpg|thumb|left|President Paul Biya of Cameroon is greeted by President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil in 2005.]]
[[Image:PaulBya Lula April 10 2005.jpg|thumb|left|President [[Paul Biya]] of Cameroon is greeted by President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of Brazil in 2005.]]
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The President of Cameroon has broad, unilateral powers to create policy, administer government agencies, command the armed forces, negotiate and ratify treaties, and declare a state of emergency.<ref>"Background Notes: Cameroon; Neba 250.</ref> The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the prime minister (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors, divisional officers, and urban-council members in large cities. The president is selected by popular vote every seven years. In smaller municipalities, the public elects mayors and councilors. Corruption is rife at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,<ref name="IRIN">IRIN, "New anti-corruption drive".</ref> and in 2006, Transparency International ranked Cameroon as the 138th most corrupt of 163 countries.<ref>2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2006.</ref> On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the National Anti-Corruption Observatory.<ref name="IRIN"/>
The [[Heads of state of Cameroon|President of Cameroon]] has broad, unilateral powers to create policy, administer government agencies, command the [[military of Cameroon|armed forces]], negotiate and ratify treaties, and declare a state of emergency.<ref>"Background Notes: Cameroon; Neba 250.</ref> The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|prime minister]] (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors, divisional officers, and urban-council members in large cities. The president is selected by popular vote every seven years. In smaller municipalities, the public elects mayors and councilors. Corruption is rife at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,<ref name="IRIN">IRIN, "New anti-corruption drive".</ref> and in 2006, [[Transparency International]] ranked Cameroon as the 138th most corrupt of 163 countries.<ref>2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2006.</ref> On [[18 January]] [[2006]], Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the [[National Anti-Corruption Observatory]].<ref name="IRIN"/>
 
  
[[Image:Statue d'un chef coutumier à Bana.jpg|thumb|right|A statue of a chief in [[Bana, Cameroon|Bana]], West Province, shows the prestige afforded such rulers. The Cameroonian government recognises the power of traditional authorities provided their rulings do not contradict national law.]]
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[[Image:Statue d'un chef coutumier à Bana.jpg|thumb|right|A statue of a chief in Bana, West Province, shows the prestige afforded such rulers. The Cameroonian government recognizes the power of traditional authorities, provided their rulings do not contradict national law.]]
Cameroon's legal system is largely based on [[law of France|French civil law]] with common law influences.<ref name="CIA">"Cameroon", ''The World Factbook''.</ref> Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]].<ref name="State Dept">"Background Note: Cameroon".</ref> The president appoints judges at all levels. The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the [[Court of Appeal of Cameroon|court of appeal]], and the [[Supreme Court of Cameroon|supreme court]]. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member [[High Court of Justice (Cameroon)|High Court of Justice]] that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.
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Cameroon's legal system is largely based on French civil law with common law influences.<ref name="CIA">"Cameroon," ''The World Factbook''.</ref> Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's Ministry of Justice.<ref name="State Dept">"Background Note: Cameroon".</ref> The president appoints judges at all levels. The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the court of appeal, and the supreme court. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member High Court of Justice that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.
  
Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, [[LGBT rights in Cameroon|homosexuals]], and political activists.<ref>"Cameroon", Amnesty International; "Cameroon (2006)", Freedom House; "Cameroon", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Department of State; "Elections to the Human Rights Council", Amnesty International.</ref> Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,<ref name="EHRC">"Elections to the Human Rights Council".</ref><ref name="Human Rights Report">"Cameroon", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.</ref> and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.<ref name="Freedom House">"Cameroon (2006)", Freedom House.</ref> However, since the early 2000s, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/>
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Human rights organizations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, homosexuals, and political activists.<ref>"Cameroon," Amnesty International; "Cameroon (2006)," Freedom House; "Cameroon," Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Department of State; "Elections to the Human Rights Council," Amnesty International.</ref> Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,<ref name="EHRC">"Elections to the Human Rights Council".</ref><ref name="Human Rights Report">"Cameroon," Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.</ref> and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.<ref name="Freedom House">"Cameroon (2006)," Freedom House.</ref> However, since the early 2000s, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/>
  
The [[National Assembly of Cameroon|National Assembly]] makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year. Laws are passed on a majority vote. Rarely has the assembly changed or blocked legislation proposed by the president.<ref name="State Dept"/> The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat Senate, but this body has never been put into practice.<ref name="CIA"/> The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and [[lamido|lamibe]] to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.<ref>"Background Note: Cameroon"; Neba 252.</ref>
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The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year. Laws are passed on a majority vote. Rarely has the assembly changed or blocked legislation proposed by the president.<ref name="State Dept"/> The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat Senate, but this body has never been put into practice.<ref name="CIA"/> The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and lamibe to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.<ref>"Background Note: Cameroon"; Neba 252.</ref>
  
President Paul Biya's [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous ethnic and regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the [[Social Democratic Front]] (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by [[John Fru Ndi]].<ref>West 11.</ref> Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, but rivals contend that these have been unfair.<ref name="DeLancey 9"/> Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.<ref name="Amnesty">"Cameroon", Amnesty International.</ref><ref name="Freedom House"/> [[Freedom House]] ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties.<ref>Cameroon is ranked a 6 in both categories on a scale of 1 to 7, with 1 being "most free" and 7 being "least free". "Cameroon (2006)", Freedom House.</ref> The last elections were held on [[October 11]], [[2004]].
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President Paul Biya's Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous ethnic and regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the Social Democratic Front (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by John Fru Ndi.<ref>West 11.</ref> Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, but rivals contend that these have been unfair.<ref name="DeLancey 9"/> Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.<ref name="Amnesty">"Cameroon," Amnesty International.</ref><ref name="Freedom House"/> Freedom House ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties.<ref>Cameroon is ranked a 6 in both categories on a scale of 1 to 7, with 1 being "most free" and 7 being "least free." "Cameroon (2006)," Freedom House.</ref> The last elections were held on October 11, 2004.
  
Cameroon is a member of both the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and [[Francophonie|La Francophonie]]. Its [[foreign relations of Cameroon|foreign policy]] closely follows that of its main ally, France.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 126; Ngoh 328.</ref> The country relies heavily on France for its defence,<ref name="State Dept"/> although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 30.</ref> Biya has clashed with the government of Nigeria over possession of the [[Bakassi]] peninsula and with [[Gabon]]'s president, [[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo]], over personal rivalries.<ref>West 11.</ref> Nevertheless, civil war presents a more credible threat to national security, as tensions between Christians and Muslims and between Anglophones and Francophones remain high.<ref>MacDonald 69.</ref>
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Cameroon is a member of both the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie. Its foreign policy closely follows that of its main ally, France.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 126; Ngoh 328.</ref> The country relies heavily on France for its defence,<ref name="State Dept"/> although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 30.</ref> Biya has clashed with the government of Nigeria over possession of the Bakassi peninsula and with Gabon's president, El Hadj Omar Bongo, over personal rivalries.<ref>West 11.</ref> Nevertheless, civil war presents a more credible threat to national security, as tensions between Christians and Muslims and between Anglophones and Francophones remain high.<ref>MacDonald 69.</ref>
  
 
==Education and health==
 
==Education and health==
[[Image:Traditional doctor sign in Tatum edited.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional doctor advertises his services in [[Tatum, Cameroon|Tatum]], Northwest Province. Such healers are popular alternatives to conventionally trained doctors.]]
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[[Image:Traditional doctor sign in Tatum edited.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional doctor advertises his services in Tatum, Northwest Province. Such healers are popular alternatives to conventionally trained doctors.]]
Most children have access to free, state-run schools or subsidised, private and religious facilities.<ref name="Mbaku 15">Mbaku 15.</ref> The [[education in Cameroon|educational system]] is a mixture of British and French precedents<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 105–6.</ref> with most instruction in English or French.<ref>Mbaku 16.</ref> Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa.<ref name="Mbaku 15"/> Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage and pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south,<ref name="Mbaku 15"/> a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/>
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Most children have access to free, state-run schools or subsidized, private and religious facilities.<ref name="Mbaku 15">Mbaku 15.</ref> The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 105–6.</ref> with most instruction in English or French.<ref>Mbaku 16.</ref> Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa.<ref name="Mbaku 15"/> Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage and pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south,<ref name="Mbaku 15"/> a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/>
  
The quality of [[health care in Cameroon|health care]] is generally low.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 21.</ref> Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.<ref name="West 64">West 64.</ref> Endemic diseases include [[dengue fever]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]], [[malaria]], [[meningitis]], [[schistosomiasis]], and [[sleeping sickness]].<ref>West 58–60.</ref> The [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] seroprevalence rate is estimated at 5.4% for those aged 15–49,<ref>"Cameroon", UNAIDS.</ref> although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 21.</ref> [[Traditional medicine|Traditional healers]] remain a popular alternative to Western medicine.<ref>Lantum and Monono 14.</ref>
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The quality of health care is generally low.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 21.</ref> Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.<ref name="West 64">West 64.</ref> Endemic diseases include dengue fever, filariasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, meningitis, schistosomiasis, and sleeping sickness.<ref>West 58–60.</ref> The HIV/AIDS seroprevalence rate is estimated at 5.4% for those aged 15–49,<ref>"Cameroon," UNAIDS.</ref> although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 21.</ref> Traditional healers remain a popular alternative to Western medicine.<ref>Lantum and Monono 14.</ref>
  
 
== Provinces and divisions ==
 
== Provinces and divisions ==
{{main|Provinces of Cameroon|Divisions of Cameroon}}
 
  
 
[[Image:Provinces of Cameroon EN.svg|thumb|200px|right|Cameroon is divided into 10 provinces.]]
 
[[Image:Provinces of Cameroon EN.svg|thumb|200px|right|Cameroon is divided into 10 provinces.]]
The [[Constitution of Cameroon|constitution]] divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected [[Regional Council (Cameroon)|Regional Council]]. In practice, Cameroon still follows the system that was in place prior to the adoption of a new constitution in 1996. The country is divided into 10 provinces, each headed by a presidentially appointed governor. These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the provinces, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, [[gendarmerie|gendarme]]s, and police.<ref>Neba 250.</ref> The provinces are subdivided into 58 divisions (French {{lang|fr|''départements''}}). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ({{lang|fr|''[[prefect|prefet]]s''}}), who perform the governors' duties on a smaller scale. The divisions are further sub-divided into [[administrative divisions of Cameroon|sub-divisions]] ({{lang|fr|''arrondissements''}}), headed by assistant divisional officers ({{lang|fr|''sous-prefets''}}). The districts, administered by district heads ({{lang|fr|''chefs de district''}}), are the smallest administrative units. These are found in large sub-divisions and in regions that are difficult to reach.
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The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected Regional Council. In practice, Cameroon still follows the system that was in place prior to the adoption of a new constitution in 1996. The country is divided into 10 provinces, each headed by a presidentially appointed governor. These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the provinces, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, gendarmes, and police.<ref>Neba 250.</ref> The provinces are subdivided into 58 divisions (French {{lang|fr|''départements''}}). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ({{lang|fr|''prefets''}}), who perform the governors' duties on a smaller scale. The divisions are further sub-divided into sub-divisions, headed by assistant divisional officers. The districts, administered by district heads, are the smallest administrative units. These are found in large sub-divisions and in regions that are difficult to reach.
  
The three northernmost provinces are the [[Far North Province|Far North]] ({{lang|fr|''Extrême Nord''}}), [[North Province (Cameroon)|North]] ({{lang|fr|''Nord''}}), and [[Adamawa Province|Adamawa]] ({{lang|fr|''Adamaoua''}}). Directly south of them are the [[Centre Province|Centre]] ({{lang|fr|''Centre''}}) and [[East Province (Cameroon)|East]] ({{lang|fr|''Est''}}). The [[South Province (Cameroon)|South Province]] ({{lang|fr|''Sud''}}) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller provinces: The [[Littoral Province (Cameroon)|Littoral]] ({{lang|fr|''Littoral''}}) and [[Southwest Province|Southwest]] ({{lang|fr|''Sud-Ouest''}}) provinces are on the coast, and the [[Northwest Province|Northwest]] ({{lang|fr|''Nord-Ouest''}}) and [[West Province (Cameroon)|West]] ({{lang|fr|''Ouest''}}) provinces are in the western grassfields. The Northwest and Southwest were once part of British Cameroons; the other provinces were in French Cameroun.
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The three northernmost provinces are the Far North, North, and Adamawa. Directly south of them are the Center and East. The South Province lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller provinces: The Littoral and Southwest provinces are on the coast, and the Northwest and West provinces are in the western grassfields. The Northwest and Southwest were once part of British Cameroons; the other provinces were in French Cameroun.
  
 
==Geography and climate==
 
==Geography and climate==
{{main|Geography of Cameroon}}
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[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|left|Volcanic plugs dot the landscape near Rhumsiki, Far North Province.]]
[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|left|Volcanic plugs dot the landscape near [[Rhumsiki]], Far North Province.]]
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It borders Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.
At {{km2 to mi2|475442|spell=Commonwealth|precision=0|wiki=yes}}, Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country.<ref>''Demographic Yearbook'' 1.</ref> It is comparable in size to [[Papua New Guinea]] and somewhat larger than the U.S. state of [[California]].<ref>"Rank Order - Area".</ref><ref name="CIA"/> The country is located in [[Central Africa|Central]] and [[West Africa]] on the [[Bight of Bonny]], part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 16.</ref> The country neighbours Nigeria to the west; [[Chad]] to the northeast; the [[Central African Republic]] to the east; and [[Equatorial Guinea]], Gabon, and the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the south.
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At {{km2 to mi2|475442|spell=Commonwealth|precision=0|wiki=yes}}, Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country, comparable in size to Papua New Guinea and somewhat larger than the U.S. state of California. The country is located in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.  
  
Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends 15 to 150&nbsp;kilometres (10 to 90&nbsp;mi) inland from the Gulf of Guinea<ref>Fomesky et al 6.</ref> and has an average elevation of 90&nbsp;metres (295&nbsp;ft).<ref>Neba 14.</ref> Exceedingly hot and humid with a short [[dry season]], this belt is densely forested and includes some of the wettest places on earth.<ref>Neba 28.</ref><ref>"Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes".</ref> The [[South Cameroon Plateau]] rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of 650&nbsp;metres (2,130&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Neba 16">Neba 16.</ref> Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between [[wet season|wet]] and dry seasons makes it is less humid than the coast.
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Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 16.</ref> The highest point is Mount Cameroon in the southwest, and the largest cities are Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua.
  
An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the [[Cameroon line|Cameroon range]] extends from [[Mount Cameroon]] on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at 4,095&nbsp;metres (13,435&nbsp;ft)<ref>Neba 17.</ref>—almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern tip. This region has a mild climate, particularly on the [[Western High Plateau]], although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon.<ref name="Neba 17">Neba 17.</ref> Vulcanism here has created [[crater lake]]s. On [[21 August]] [[1986]], one of these, [[Lake Nyos]], belched toxic fumes and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 161 report 1,700 killed; Hudgens and Trillo 1054 say "at least 2,000"; West 10 says "more than 2,000".</ref>
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Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends 15 to 150&nbsp;kilometres (10 to 90&nbsp;mi) inland from the Gulf of Guinea<ref>Fomesky et al 6.</ref> and has an average elevation of 90&nbsp;metres (295&nbsp;ft).<ref>Neba 14.</ref> Exceedingly hot and humid with a short dry season, this belt is densely forested and includes some of the wettest places on earth.<ref>Neba 28.</ref><ref>"Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes".</ref> The South Cameroon Plateau rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of 650&nbsp;metres (2,130&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Neba 16">Neba 16.</ref> Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between wet and dry seasons makes it is less humid than the coast.
  
The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamawa Plateau]]. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is 1,100&nbsp;metres (3,600&nbsp;ft),<ref name="Neba 16"/> and its temperature ranges from 22 to 25&nbsp;°C (72 to 77&nbsp;°F) with high rainfall.<ref>Gwanfogbe et al 20; Neba 29.</ref> The northern lowland region extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of 300 to 350&nbsp;metres (980 to 1,150&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Neba 17"/> Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.
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An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the Cameroon range extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at 4,095&nbsp;metres (13,435&nbsp;ft)<ref>Neba 17.</ref>—almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern tip. This region has a mild climate, particularly on the Western High Plateau, although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon.<ref name="Neba 17">Neba 17.</ref> Vulcanism here has created crater lakes. On 21 August 1986, one of these, Lake Nyos, belched toxic fumes and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 161 report 1,700 killed; Hudgens and Trillo 1054 say "at least 2,000"; West 10 says "more than 2,000".</ref>
  
Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are the [[Ntem River|Ntem]], [[Nyong River|Nyong]], [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]], and Wouri. These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The [[Dja River|Dja]] and [[Kadéï River|Kadéï]] drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the [[Benue River|Bénoué River]] runs north and west and empties into the [[Niger River|Niger]]. The [[Logon River|Logone]] flows northward into Lake Chad, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries.
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The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged Adamawa Plateau. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is 1,100&nbsp;metres (3,600&nbsp;ft),<ref name="Neba 16"/> and its temperature ranges from 22 to 25&nbsp;°C (72 to 77&nbsp;°F) with high rainfall.<ref>Gwanfogbe et al 20; Neba 29.</ref> The northern lowland region extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of 300 to 350&nbsp;metres (980 to 1,150&nbsp;ft).<ref name="Neba 17"/> Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.
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Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri. These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The Dja and Kadéï drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the Bénoué River runs north and west and empties into the [[Niger River]]. The Logone flows northward into Lake Chad, which Cameroon shares with three neighboring countries.
  
 
==Economy and infrastructure==
 
==Economy and infrastructure==
{{main|Economy of Cameroon}}
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Cameroon's per-capita GDP (PPP) was estimated as US$2,421 in 2005,<ref>"World Economic and Financial Surveys".</ref> high for an African country.<ref name="West 12">West 12.</ref> Major export markets include France, Italy, South Korea, Spain, and the United Kingdom.<ref name="CIA"/> Cameroon is part of the Bank of Central African States and the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC). Its currency is the CFA franc. Red tape, high taxes, and endemic corruption have impeded growth of the private sector.<ref>Neba 132.</ref> Unemployment was estimated at 30% in 2001, and about 48% of the population was living below the poverty threshold in 2000.<ref name="CIA"/> Since 1997, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.<ref name="State Dept"/> Tourism is a growing sector, particularly in the coastal area, around Mount Cameroon, and in the north.<ref>Neba 173–6.</ref>
Cameroon's per-capita GDP ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) was estimated as [[United States dollar|US$]]2,421 in 2005,<ref>"World Economic and Financial Surveys".</ref> high for an African country.<ref name="West 12">West 12.</ref> Major export markets include France, Italy, South Korea, Spain, and the United Kingdom.<ref name="CIA"/> Cameroon is part of the [[Bank of Central African States]] and the [[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC). Its currency is the [[CFA franc]]. Red tape, high taxes, and endemic corruption have impeded growth of the private sector.<ref>Neba 132.</ref> Unemployment was estimated at 30% in 2001, and about 48% of the population was living below the poverty threshold in 2000.<ref name="CIA"/> Since 1997, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.<ref name="State Dept"/> [[Tourism in Cameroon|Tourism]] is a growing sector, particularly in the coastal area, around Mount Cameroon, and in the north.<ref>Neba 173–6.</ref>
 
  
[[Image:Tole-tea-back.jpg|thumb|right|Tea, such as this bag produced by the [[Cameroon Development Corporation]], is one of Cameroon's major cash crops.]]
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[[Image:Tole-tea-back.jpg|thumb|right|Tea, such as this bag produced by the Cameroon Development Corporation, is one of Cameroon's major cash crops.]]
Cameroon's natural resources are better suited to agriculture and forestry than to industry. An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 45.2% of GDP in 2006.<ref name="CIA"/> Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs.<ref>Neba 208.</ref> Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas, cocoa, oil palms, rubber, and tea. Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions favour crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Cameroon vulnerable to shifts in their prices.<ref name="CIA"/>
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Cameroon's natural resources are better suited to agriculture and forestry than to industry. An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 45.2% of GDP in 2006. Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs.<ref>Neba 208.</ref> Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas, cocoa, oil palms, rubber, and tea. Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions favour crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Cameroon vulnerable to shifts in their prices.
  
[[Image:Fulani herd in the dust.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Fula people|Fulani]] herder drives his cattle in northern Cameroon.]]
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[[Image:Fulani herd in the dust.jpg|thumb|left|A Fulani herder drives his cattle in northern Cameroon.]]
Livestock are raised throughout the country. Fishing employs some 5,000 people and provides 20,000 tons of seafood each year.<ref>Neba 185.</ref> [[Bushmeat]], long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.<ref>West 24.</ref>
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Livestock are raised throughout the country. Fishing employs some 5,000 people and provides 20,000 tons of seafood each year.<ref>Neba 185.</ref> Bushmeat, long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.<ref>West 24.</ref>
  
 
The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.<ref>Neba 189.</ref> However, large areas of the forest are difficult to reach. Logging, largely handled by foreign-owned firms, provides the government US$60 million a year, and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber. Nevertheless, in practice, the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon.<ref>Neba 195.</ref><ref>West 23.</ref>
 
The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.<ref>Neba 189.</ref> However, large areas of the forest are difficult to reach. Logging, largely handled by foreign-owned firms, provides the government US$60 million a year, and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber. Nevertheless, in practice, the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon.<ref>Neba 195.</ref><ref>West 23.</ref>
  
[[Image:Logging truck and bush taxi accident.jpg|thumb|right|A [[share taxi|bush taxi]] attempts to pass a stalled logging vehicle on the road between [[Abong-Mbang]] and [[Lomié]], East Province.]]
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[[Image:Logging truck and bush taxi accident.jpg|thumb|right|A bush taxi attempts to pass a stalled logging vehicle on the road between Abong-Mbang and Lomié, East Province.]]
Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 16.1% of GDP in 2006.<ref name="CIA"/> More than 75% of Cameroon's industrial strength is located in [[Douala]] and [[Bonabéri]].<ref>Neba 170.</ref> Cameroon possesses substantial mineral resources, but these are not extensively mined.<ref name="State Dept"/> Petroleum exploitation has fallen since 1985, but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy.<ref>Neba 158.</ref><ref name="CIA"/> Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy.<ref name="West 12"/> The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa.<ref>Neba 160.</ref> The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.<ref>Neba 161.</ref>
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Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 16.1% of GDP in 2006.<ref name="CIA"/> More than 75% of Cameroon's industrial strength is located in Douala and Bonabéri.<ref>Neba 170.</ref> Cameroon possesses substantial [[mineral]] resources, but these are not extensively mined.<ref name="State Dept"/> [[Petroleum]] exploitation has fallen since 1985, but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy.<ref>Neba 158.</ref><ref name="CIA"/> Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy.<ref name="West 12"/> The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa.<ref>Neba 160.</ref> The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.<ref>Neba 161.</ref>
  
[[Transport in Cameroon]] is often difficult. Roads are poorly maintained<ref>Neba 199.</ref> and subject to inclement weather, since only 10% of the roadways are tarred.<ref name="CIA"/> Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travellers.<ref>Hudgens and Trillo 1036.</ref> Rail service runs from [[Kumba]] in the west to [[Bélabo]] in the east and north to Ngaoundéré. International airports are located in Douala and [[Garoua]] with a smaller facility at Yaoundé. The Wouri River estuary provides a harbour for Douala, the country's principal seaport. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.
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Transport in Cameroon is often difficult. Roads are poorly maintained<ref>Neba 199.</ref> and subject to inclement weather, since only 10% of the roadways are tarred. Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travelers.<ref>Hudgens and Trillo 1036.</ref> Rail service runs from Kumba in the west to Bélabo in the east and north to Ngaoundéré. International airports are located in Douala and Garoua with a smaller facility at Yaoundé. The Wouri River estuary provides a harbour for Douala, the country's principal seaport. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.
  
Although press freedoms have improved since the early 2000s, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups.<ref name="Reporters">"Cameroon - Annual Report 2007".</ref> Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.<ref name="Human Rights Report">"Cameroon", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.</ref> The major radio and television stations are state-run,<ref>Neba 207.</ref> and other [[communications in Cameroon|communications]], such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, are largely under government control.<ref>Mbaku 20.</ref> However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the early 2000s<ref>Mbaku 20–1.</ref> and are largely unregulated.<ref name="Freedom House"/>
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Although press freedoms have improved since the early 2000s, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups.<ref name="Reporters">"Cameroon - Annual Report 2007".</ref> Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.<ref name="Human Rights Report">"Cameroon," Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.</ref> The major radio and television stations are state-run,<ref>Neba 207.</ref> and other communications, such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, are largely under government control.<ref>Mbaku 20.</ref> However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the early 2000s<ref>Mbaku 20–1.</ref> and are largely unregulated.<ref name="Freedom House"/>
  
 
==Demographics==
 
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Cameroon}}
 
  
[[Image:Tikar family.jpg|thumb|right|Members of [[Tikar]] ethnic groups, such as this family, live in the Northwest Province.]]
+
[[Image:Tikar family.jpg|thumb|right|Members of Tikar ethnic groups, such as this family, live in the Northwest Province.]]
2005 estimates place Cameroon's population at 17,795,000.<ref>''World Population Prospects''.</ref> This population is young: an estimated 41.2% are under 15, and 96.7% are under 65. The birth rate is estimated at 33.89 births per 1,000 people, the death rate at 13.47.<ref name="CIA">"Cameroon". ''World Factbook''.</ref> The life expectancy is 51.16&nbsp;years (50.98&nbsp;years for males and 51.34&nbsp;years for females).<ref name="CIA"/>
+
2005 estimates place Cameroon's population at 17,795,000.<ref>''World Population Prospects''.</ref> This population is young: an estimated 41.2% are under 15, and 96.7% are under 65. The birth rate is estimated at 33.89 births per 1,000 people, the death rate at 13.47. The life expectancy is 51.16&nbsp;years (50.98&nbsp;years for males and 51.34&nbsp;years for females).
  
Cameroon's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers.<ref name="West 3">West 3.</ref> Population density is highest in the large urban centres, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain.<ref>Neba 109–11.</ref> Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.<ref>Neba 111.</ref> People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment.<ref>Neba 105–6.</ref> Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east.<ref>Neba 106.</ref> Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.<ref>Neba 103–4.</ref>
+
Cameroon's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers.<ref name="West 3">West 3.</ref> Population density is highest in the large urban centers, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain.<ref>Neba 109–11.</ref> Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.<ref>Neba 111.</ref> People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment.<ref>Neba 105–6.</ref> Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east.<ref>Neba 106.</ref> Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.<ref>Neba 103–4.</ref>
  
Both [[monogamy|monogamous]] and [[polygamy|polygamous]] marriage are practiced, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended.<ref>Mbaku 139.</ref> In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women is common.<ref>Mbaku 141.</ref><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref name="Freedom House"/> At the onset of puberty, an estimated 26% of girls are subjected to [[breast ironing]], a practice by which their breasts are pounded or massaged with heated objects to prevent them from developing. The goal is to prevent the girls from becoming precociously sexually active and to protect them from sexual assault.<ref>Sa'ah.</ref> Female [[genital modification and mutilation|genital mutilation]] is practiced in portions of the Far North and Southwest provinces.<ref name="EHRC"/>
+
English and French are the official languages.
  
[[Image:Maison obus.jpg|thumb|left|The homes of the [[Musgum]], in the Far North Province, are made of earth and grass.]]
+
Both [[monogamy|monogamous]] and [[polygamy|polygamous]] marriage are practiced, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended.<ref>Mbaku 139.</ref> In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women is common.<ref>Mbaku 141.</ref><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref name="Freedom House"/> At the onset of puberty, an estimated 26% of girls are subjected to breast ironing, a practice by which their breasts are pounded or massaged with heated objects to prevent them from developing. The goal is to prevent the girls from becoming precociously sexually active and to protect them from sexual assault.<ref>Sa'ah.</ref> Female genital mutilation is practiced in portions of the Far North and Southwest provinces.<ref name="EHRC"/>
Estimates identify anywhere from 230 to 282 different ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon.<ref>Neba 65, 67.</ref><ref>West 13.</ref> The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are Sudanese ethnic groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the Fulani, who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of [[Baggara|Shuwa]] Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of [[Bantu]] and [[Semi-Bantu]] languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Pygmies roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements.<ref>Neba 48.</ref> War in the Central African Republic has driven more than 20,000 refugees to Cameroon's Adamawa and East provinces since 2002.<ref>International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.</ref> Nigerians, especially [[Igbo people|Igbo]], make up the largest group of foreign nationals.<ref>Neba 108.</ref>
 
  
Cameroon has a high level of religious freedom and diversity.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The northern peoples are predominantly [[Islam|Muslim]], although some ethnic groups retain native [[animism|animist]] beliefs and are called ''[[Kirdi]]'' ("pagan") by the Fulani. The [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] claims that some Muslims discriminate against Christians and followers of traditional beliefs in the north.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow [[Christianity|Christian]] or animist beliefs, or a [[syncretism|syncretic]] combination of the two. People widely believe in witchcraft, and the government outlaws such practices.<ref>Geschiere 169–70.</ref> Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/>
+
[[Image:Maison obus.jpg|thumb|left|The homes of the Musgum, in the Far North Province, are made of earth and grass.]]
 +
Estimates identify anywhere from 230 to 282 different ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon.<ref>Neba 65, 67.</ref><ref>West 13.</ref> The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are Sudanese ethnic groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the Fulani, who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of Shuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of Bantu and Semi-Bantu languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Pygmies roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements.<ref>Neba 48.</ref> War in the Central African Republic has driven more than 20,000 refugees to Cameroon's Adamawa and East provinces since 2002.<ref>International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.</ref> Nigerians, especially Igbo, make up the largest group of foreign nationals.<ref>Neba 108.</ref>
  
The European languages introduced during colonialism have created a linguistic divide between the English-speaking fifth of the population who live in the Northwest and Southwest provinces and the French-speaking remainder of the country.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 28.</ref> Both English and French are official languages. [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]] is the most common lingua franca, especially in the formerly British-administered territories.<ref>Neba 94.</ref> A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin called [[Camfranglais]] has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 131; Niba.</ref>
+
Cameroon has a high level of religious freedom and diversity.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The northern peoples are predominantly [[Islam|Muslim]], although some ethnic groups retain native [[animism|animist]] beliefs and are called ''Kirdi'' ("pagan") by the Fulani. The U.S. Department of State claims that some Muslims discriminate against Christians and followers of traditional beliefs in the north.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow [[Christianity|Christian]] or animist beliefs, or a syncretic combination of the two. People widely believe in witchcraft, and the government outlaws such practices.<ref>Geschiere 169–70.</ref> Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/>
 +
 
 +
The European languages introduced during colonialism have created a linguistic divide between the English-speaking fifth of the population who live in the Northwest and Southwest provinces and the French-speaking remainder of the country.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 28.</ref> Both English and French are official languages. Cameroonian Pidgin English is the most common lingua franca, especially in the formerly British-administered territories.<ref>Neba 94.</ref> A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin called Camfranglais has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 131; Niba.</ref>
  
 
==Culture==
 
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Cameroon}}
+
[[Image:Baka dancers June 2006.jpg|right|thumb|Baka dancers greet visitors to the East Province.]]
[[Image:Baka dancers June 2006.jpg|right|thumb|[[Baka (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] dancers greet visitors to the East Province.]]
 
 
{| class="prettytable" style="float: left;"
 
{| class="prettytable" style="float: left;"
 
|-
 
|-
Line 168: Line 166:
 
! style="font-size: smaller;" | English Name
 
! style="font-size: smaller;" | English Name
 
|-
 
|-
| [[1 January]]
+
| 1 January
 
| [[New Year's Day]]
 
| [[New Year's Day]]
 
|-
 
|-
| [[11 February]]
+
| 11 February
 
| [[National Youth Day]]
 
| [[National Youth Day]]
 
|-
 
|-
| [[1 May]]
+
| 1 May
 
| [[Labour Day]]
 
| [[Labour Day]]
 
|-
 
|-
| [[20 May]]
+
| 20 May
 
| [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]]
 
| [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]]
 
|-
 
|-
| [[15 August]]
+
| 15 August
 
| [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
 
| [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
 
|-
 
|-
| [[1 October]]
+
| 1 October
 
| [[Unification Day (Cameroon)|Unification Day]]
 
| [[Unification Day (Cameroon)|Unification Day]]
 
|-
 
|-
| [[25 December]]
+
| 25 December
 
| [[Christmas]]
 
| [[Christmas]]
 
|}
 
|}
Each of Cameroon's ethnic groups has its own unique cultural forms. Typical celebrations include births, deaths, plantings, harvests, and religious rituals. Seven [[public holidays in Cameroon|national holidays]] are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holy days of [[Good Friday]], [[Easter]] Sunday, [[Easter Monday]], and [[Ascension]]; and the Muslim holy days of [[Eid ul-Fitr|'Id al-Fitr]], [[Eid ul-Adha|'Id al-Adha]], and [[Mawlid|Eid Milad Nnabi]].
+
Each of Cameroon's ethnic groups has its own unique cultural forms. Typical celebrations include births, deaths, plantings, harvests, and religious rituals. Seven national holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holy days of [[Good Friday]], [[Easter]] Sunday, [[Easter Monday]], and [[Ascension]]; and the Muslim holy days of [[Eid ul-Fitr|'Id al-Fitr]], [[Eid ul-Adha|'Id al-Adha]], and [[Mawlid|Eid Milad Nnabi]].
 
 
[[Music of Cameroon|Music]] and [[dance in Cameroon|dance]] are an integral part of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.<ref>Mbaku 189; West 18.</ref> Traditional dances are highly choreographed and separate men and women or forbid participation by one sex altogether.<ref>Mbaku 204.</ref> The goals of dances range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.<ref name="West 18">West 18.</ref> Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.<ref name="Mbaku 189">Mbaku 189.</ref> Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stomping feet,<ref>Mbaku 191.</ref> but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums and [[talking drum]]s, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; the exact combination varies with ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs by themselves, accompanied by a harplike instrument.<ref name="Mbaku 189"/><ref>West 18–9.</ref>
 
  
Popular music styles include [[ambasse bey]] of the coast, [[assiko]] of the Bassa, [[mangambeu]] of the [[Bamileke|Bangangte]], and [[tsamassi]] of the Bamileke.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 184.</ref> [[Music of Nigeria|Nigerian music]] has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and [[Prince Nico Mbarga]]'s [[highlife]] hit "[[Sweet Mother]]" is the top-selling African record in history.<ref>Mbaku 200.</ref> The two most popular styles are [[makossa]] and [[bikutsi]]. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, [[highlife]], [[soul music|soul]], and [[soukous|Congo music]]. Performers such as [[Manu Dibango]], [[Francis Bebey]], [[Moni Bilé]], and [[Petit-Pays]] popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as [[Anne-Marie Nzié]] developed it into a popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as [[Mama Ohandja]] and [[Les Têtes Brulées]] popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 51; Nkolo & Ewens 443.</ref>
+
[[Music]] and [[dance]] are an integral part of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.<ref>Mbaku 189; West 18.</ref> Traditional dances are highly choreographed and separate men and women or forbid participation by one sex altogether.<ref>Mbaku 204.</ref> The goals of dances range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.<ref name="West 18">West 18.</ref> Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.<ref name="Mbaku 189">Mbaku 189.</ref> Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stomping feet,<ref>Mbaku 191.</ref> but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums and talking drums, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; the exact combination varies with ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs by themselves, accompanied by a harplike instrument.<ref name="Mbaku 189"/><ref>West 18–9.</ref>
  
[[Cuisine of Cameroon|Cuisine]] varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams, maize, manioc, millet, plantains, potatoes, rice, or yams, often pounded into dough-like [[fufu]] (''cous-cous''). This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens, groundnuts, palm oil, or other ingredients.<ref>West 84–5.</ref> Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions.<ref name="Mbaku 121-2">Mbaku 121–2.</ref> Dishes are often quite hot, spiced with salt, red pepper, and [[Maggi]].<ref>Hudgens and Trillo 1047; Mbaku 122; West 84.</ref> Water, [[palm wine]], and [[millet beer]] are the traditional mealtime drinks, although beer, soda, and wine have gained popularity.<ref>Mbaku 121; Hudgens and Trillo 1048.</ref> Silverware is common, but food is traditionally manipulated with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers or bread and fruit with coffee or tea. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought from street vendors.
+
Popular music styles include ambasse bey of the coast, assiko of the Bassa, mangambeu of the Bangangte, and tsamassi of the Bamileke.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 184.</ref> Nigerian music has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and Prince Nico Mbarga's highlife hit "Sweet Mother" is the top-selling African record in history.<ref>Mbaku 200.</ref> The two most popular styles are makossa and bikutsi. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife, soul, and Congo music. Performers such as Manu Dibango, Francis Bebey, Moni Bilé, and Petit-Pays popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as Anne-Marie Nzié developed it into a popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as Mama Ohandja and Les Têtes Brulées popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 51; Nkolo & Ewens 443.</ref>
  
[[Image:Woman weaving baskets near Lake Ossa.jpg|left|thumb|A woman weaves a basket near [[Lake Ossa]], Littoral Province. Cameroonians practice such handicrafts throughout the country.]]
+
Cuisine varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams, maize, manioc, millet, plantains, potatoes, rice, or yams, often pounded into dough-like fufu (''cous-cous''). This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens, groundnuts, palm oil, or other ingredients.<ref>West 84–5.</ref> Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions.<ref name="Mbaku 121-2">Mbaku 121–2.</ref> Dishes are often quite hot, spiced with salt, red pepper, and Maggi.<ref>Hudgens and Trillo 1047; Mbaku 122; West 84.</ref> Water, palm wine, and millet beer are the traditional mealtime drinks, although beer, soda, and wine have gained popularity.<ref>Mbaku 121; Hudgens and Trillo 1048.</ref> Silverware is common, but food is traditionally manipulated with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers or bread and fruit with coffee or tea. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought from street vendors.
Traditional arts and crafts are practices throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common.<ref>West 17.</ref> The high-quality clay of the western highlands is suitable for pottery and ceramics.<ref name="West 18"/> Other crafts include basket weaving, beadworking, brass and bronze working, calabash carving and painting, embroidery, and leather working. Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials and vary from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadic [[Wodaabe|Mbororo]] to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Dwellings made from materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common.<ref>Mbaku 110–3.</ref>
 
  
[[Image:Cameroon vs Germany 2003.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] faces [[Germany national football team|Germany]] at [[Zentralstadion]] in [[Leipzig]], [[27 April]] [[2003]].]]
+
[[Image:Woman weaving baskets near Lake Ossa.jpg|left|thumb|A woman weaves a basket near Lake Ossa, Littoral Province. Cameroonians practice such handicrafts throughout the country.]]
Cameroonian literature and [[list of Cameroonian films|film]] have concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as [[Louis-Marie Pouka]] and [[Sankie Maimo]] were educated by European missionary societies and advocated [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] into European culture as the means to bring Cameroon into the modern world.<ref>Mbaku 80–1</ref> After World War II, writers such as [[Mongo Beti]] and [[Ferdinand Oyono]] analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation.<ref>Fitzpatrick 38; Mbaku 77, 83–4; Volet.</ref> Shortly after independence, filmmakers such as [[Jean-Paul Ngassa]] and [[Thérèse Sita-Bella]] explored similar themes.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 119–20; West 20.</ref> In the 1960s, Mongo Beti and other writers explored post-colonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity.<ref>Mbaku 85–6.</ref>  Meanwhile, in the mid-1970s, filmmakers such as [[Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa]] and [[Daniel Kamwa]] dealt with the conflicts between traditional and post-colonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades concentrated more on wholly Cameroonian themes.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 120.</ref>
+
Traditional arts and crafts are practices throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common.<ref>West 17.</ref> The high-quality clay of the western highlands is suitable for pottery and ceramics.<ref name="West 18"/> Other crafts include basket weaving, beadworking, brass and bronze working, calabash carving and painting, embroidery, and leather working. Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials and vary from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadic Mbororo to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Dwellings made from materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common.<ref>Mbaku 110–3.</ref>
  
National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the 40 km (24.8 mi) [[Mount Cameroon Race of Hope]] each year.<ref>West 127.</ref> Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have [[Cameroon at the 2002 Winter Olympics|competed]] in the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]]. However, [[sport in Cameroon]] is dominated by football (soccer). Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. The [[Cameroon national football team]] has been one of the most successful in the world since its strong showing in the [[1990 FIFA World Cup]]. Cameroon has won four [[African Cup of Nations]] titles.<ref>West 92–3, 127.</ref>
+
[[Image:Cameroon vs Germany 2003.jpg|thumb|right|Cameroon faces Germany at Zentralstadion in Leipzig, 27 April 2003.]]
 +
Cameroonian literature and film have concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as Louis-Marie Pouka and Sankie Maimo were educated by European missionary societies and advocated assimilation into European culture as the means to bring Cameroon into the modern world.<ref>Mbaku 80–1</ref> After World War II, writers such as Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation.<ref>Fitzpatrick 38; Mbaku 77, 83–4; Volet.</ref> Shortly after independence, filmmakers such as Jean-Paul Ngassa and Thérèse Sita-Bella explored similar themes.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 119–20; West 20.</ref> In the 1960s, Mongo Beti and other writers explored post-colonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity.<ref>Mbaku 85–6.</ref>  Meanwhile, in the mid-1970s, filmmakers such as Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa and Daniel Kamwa dealt with the conflicts between traditional and post-colonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades concentrated more on wholly Cameroonian themes.<ref>DeLancey and DeLancey 120.</ref>
  
== See also ==
+
National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the 40 km (24.8 mi) Mount Cameroon Race of Hope each year.<ref>West 127.</ref> Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have competed in the Winter Olympics. However, sport in Cameroon is dominated by football (soccer). Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. The Cameroon national football team has been one of the most successful in the world since its strong showing in the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Cameroon has won four African Cup of Nations titles.<ref>West 92–3, 127.</ref>
* [[List of Cameroon-related topics]]
 
* [[List of municipalities in Cameroon]]
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 213: Line 207:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
*"[http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2006]". Transparency International. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
*"[http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2006]." Transparency International. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm Background Note: Cameroon]". October 2006. United States Department of State. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm Background Note: Cameroon]." October 2006. United States Department of State. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/cmr-summary-eng Cameroon]". ''Amnesty International Report 2006''. Amnesty International Publications. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/cmr-summary-eng Cameroon]." ''Amnesty International Report 2006''. Amnesty International Publications. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78723.htm Cameroon]". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, [[6 March]] [[2007]]. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78723.htm Cameroon]." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 6 March 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html Cameroon]". ''Human Development Report 2006''. United Nations Development Programme. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html Cameroon]." ''Human Development Report 2006''. United Nations Development Programme. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cm.html Cameroon]". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency. [[15 March]] [[2007]]. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cm.html Cameroon]." ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency. 15 March 2007. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://www.unaids.org/en/Regions_Countries/Countries/cameroon.asp Cameroon]". UNAIDS. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://www.unaids.org/en/Regions_Countries/Countries/cameroon.asp Cameroon]." UNAIDS. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6935 Cameroon (2006)]". ''Country Report: 2006 Edition''. Freedom House, Inc. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6935 Cameroon (2006)]." ''Country Report: 2006 Edition''. Freedom House, Inc. Accessed 6 April 2007.
*"[http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 Cameroon - Annual Report 2007]". Reporters without Borders. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
*"[http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 Cameroon - Annual Report 2007]." Reporters without Borders. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* "[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=57951 CAMEROON: New anti-corruption drive leaves many sceptical]". [[27 January]] [[2006]]. ''IRIN''. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* "[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=57951 CAMEROON: New anti-corruption drive leaves many sceptical]." 27 January 2006. ''IRIN''. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* ''Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon'' ([http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf  English] and [http://www.prc.cm/instit/consti.htm French] versions). [[18 January]] [[1996]]. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
* ''Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon'' ([http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf  English] and [http://www.prc.cm/instit/consti.htm French] versions). 18 January 1996. Accessed 6 April 2007.
 
* DeLancey, Mark W., and Mark Dike DeLancey (2000): ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon'' (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
 
* DeLancey, Mark W., and Mark Dike DeLancey (2000): ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon'' (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
 
* [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf ''Demographic Yearbook 2004'']. United Nations Statistics Division.
 
* [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf ''Demographic Yearbook 2004'']. United Nations Statistics Division.
*"[http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR410062006?open&of=ENG-CMR 2006 Elections to the Human Rights Council: Background information on candidate countries]". May 2006. Amnesty International Publications. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
+
*"[http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR410062006?open&of=ENG-CMR 2006 Elections to the Human Rights Council: Background information on candidate countries]." May 2006. Amnesty International Publications. Accessed 6 April 2007.
 
* Fanso, V. G. (1989). ''Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
 
* Fanso, V. G. (1989). ''Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
 
* Fitzpatrick, Mary (2002). "Cameroon." ''Lonely Planet West Africa'', 5th ed. China: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.
 
* Fitzpatrick, Mary (2002). "Cameroon." ''Lonely Planet West Africa'', 5th ed. China: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.
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* Geschiere, Peter (1997). ''The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa''. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
 
* Geschiere, Peter (1997). ''The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa''. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
 
* Gwanfogbe, Mathew, Ambrose Meligui, Jean Moukam, and Jeanette Nguoghia (1983). ''Geography of Cameroon.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
 
* Gwanfogbe, Mathew, Ambrose Meligui, Jean Moukam, and Jeanette Nguoghia (1983). ''Geography of Cameroon.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
* "[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes]". Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]], [[9 August]], [[2004]]. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
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* "[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes]." Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]], 9 August, 2004. Accessed 6 April 2007.
 
* Hudgens, Jim, and Richard Trillo (1999). ''West Africa: The Rough Guide''. 3rd ed. London: Rough Guides Ltd.
 
* Hudgens, Jim, and Richard Trillo (1999). ''West Africa: The Rough Guide''. 3rd ed. London: Rough Guides Ltd.
* International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ([[28 May]] [[2007]]). "[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EKOI-73N32R?OpenDocument Cameroon: Population Movement; DREF Bulletin no. MDRCM004]". ReliefWeb. Accessed [[18 June]] [[2007]].
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* International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (28 May 2007). "[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EKOI-73N32R?OpenDocument Cameroon: Population Movement; DREF Bulletin no. MDRCM004]." ReliefWeb. Accessed 18 June 2007.
* Lantum, Daniel M., and Martin Ekeke Monono (2005). "Republic of Cameroon", ''Who Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine''. World Health Organization.
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* Lantum, Daniel M., and Martin Ekeke Monono (2005). "Republic of Cameroon," ''Who Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine''. World Health Organization.
*MacDonald, Brian S. (1997). "Case Study 4: Cameroon", ''Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?'' McGill-Queen's University Press.
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*MacDonald, Brian S. (1997). "Case Study 4: Cameroon," ''Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?'' McGill-Queen's University Press.
 
* Mbaku, John Mukum (2005). ''Culture and Customs of Cameroon''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
 
* Mbaku, John Mukum (2005). ''Culture and Customs of Cameroon''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
 
* Neba, Aaron (1999). ''Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon,'' 3rd ed. Bamenda: Neba Publishers.
 
* Neba, Aaron (1999). ''Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon,'' 3rd ed. Bamenda: Neba Publishers.
* Niba, Francis Ngwa ([[20 February]] [[2007]]). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6376389.stm New language for divided Cameroon]". BBC News. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
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* Niba, Francis Ngwa (20 February 2007). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6376389.stm New language for divided Cameroon]." BBC News. Accessed 6 April 2007.
* Nkolo, Jean-Victor, and Graeme Ewens (2000). "Cameroon: Music of a Small Continent". ''World Music, Volume 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East''. London: Rough Guides Ltd.
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* Nkolo, Jean-Victor, and Graeme Ewens (2000). "Cameroon: Music of a Small Continent." ''World Music, Volume 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East''. London: Rough Guides Ltd.
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*Sa'ah, Randy Joe ([[23 June]] [[2006]]). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing']". BBC News. Accessed [[6 April]] [[2007]].
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* Swarovski Orchestra (2004). ''National Anthems of the World''. Koch International Classics. Audio CD.
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* Volet, Jean-Marie (10 November 2006). "[http://aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/CountryCameroonEN.html Cameroon Literature at a glance]." ''Reading women writers and African literatures''. Accessed 6 April 2007.
 
* West, Ben (2004). ''Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide''. Guilford, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press Inc.
 
* West, Ben (2004). ''Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide''. Guilford, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press Inc.
 
* Wight, Susannah, ed. (2006). ''Cameroon''. Spain: MTH Multimedia S.L.
 
* Wight, Susannah, ed. (2006). ''Cameroon''. Spain: MTH Multimedia S.L.
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==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 00:50, 25 June 2007

République du Cameroun
Republic of Cameroon
Flag of Cameroon Emblem of Cameroon
Flag Emblem
Motto: "Paix - Travail - Patrie" (French)
"Peace - Work - Fatherland"
Anthem: Ô Cameroun, Berceau de nos

Ancêtres (French)
O Cameroon, Cradle of our Forefathers 1

Location of Cameroon
Capital Yaoundé
3°52′N 11°31′E
Largest city Douala
Official languages French, English
Government Republic
 - President Paul Biya
 - Prime Minister Ephraïm Inoni
Independence from France and the UK 
 - Date 1 January 1960, 1 October 1961 
Area
 - Total 475,442 km² (53rd)
183,568 sq mi 
 - Water (%) 1.3
Population
 - July 2005 estimate 17,795,000
 - 2003 census 15,746,179
 - Density 37/km²
97/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2005 estimate
 - Total $43.196 billion
 - Per capita $2,421
HDI  (2006) 0.506 (medium)
Currency CFA franc (XAF)
Time zone WAT (UTC+1)
 - Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+1)
Internet TLD .cm
Calling code +237

The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. The country is called "Africa in miniature" for its geological and cultural diversity. Natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, and savannas. Cameroon is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. The country is well known for its native styles of music, particularly makossa and bikutsi, and for its successful national football team.

Compared with other African countries, Cameroon enjoys political and social stability. This has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, railways, and large petroleum and timber industries. Nevertheless, large numbers of Cameroonians live in poverty as subsistence farmers. Power lies firmly in the hands of the president, Paul Biya, and his Cameroon People's Democratic Movement party, and corruption is widespread. The Anglophone community has grown increasingly alienated from the government, and Anglophone politicians have called for greater decentralisation and even the secession of the former British-governed territories.

History

Joseph Merrick (shown here attending an Isubu funeral in 1845) was a Jamaican Baptist missionary who established a church among the Isubu of the coast.

The territory of present day Cameroon was first settled during the Neolithic. The longest continuous inhabitants are the Pygmy groups such as the Baka.[1] The Sao culture arose around Lake Chad c. AD 500 and gave way to the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Kingdoms, fondoms, and chiefdoms arose in the west.

Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake Chad and the Baka hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the fifteenth century and named the area Rio dos Camarões ("River of Prawns"), the name from which Cameroon derives. Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north in the nineteenth century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms. Cameroon became a German colony in 1884. After World War I, the territory was divided between France and Britain as League of Nations mandates. The Union des Populations du Cameroun political party advocated independence but was outlawed in the 1950s. It waged war on French and Cameroonian forces until 1971. In 1960, French Cameroun became independent as the Republic of Cameroun under President Ahmadou Ahidjo. The southern part of British Cameroons merged with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The country was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.

Portuguese sailors reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of prawns and crayfish in the Wouri River and named it Rio dos Camarões, Portuguese for "River of Prawns," and the phrase from which Cameroon is derived. Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian missionaries pushed inland. In the early 19th century, Modibo Adama led Fulani soldiers on a jihad in the north against non-Muslim and partially Muslim peoples and established the Adamawa Emirate. Settled peoples who fled the Fulani caused a major redistribution of population.[2]

The German Empire claimed the territory as the colony of Kamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland. They initiated projects to improve the colony's infrastructure, relying on a harsh system of forced labour.[3] With the defeat of Germany in World War I, Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was split into French Cameroun and British Cameroons in 1919. The French carefully integrated the economy of Cameroun with that of France[4] and improved the infrastructure with capital investments, skilled workers, and continued forced labour.[3] The British administered their territory from neighbouring Nigeria. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony." Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour but angering indigenous peoples.[5] The League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroun.[4] France outlawed the most radical political party, the Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC), on 13 July 1955. This prompted a long guerrilla war and the assassination of the party's leader, Ruben Um Nyobé.[6] In British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroun or join Nigeria.

On January 1, 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President Ahmadou Ahidjo, and on 1 October 1961, the formerly-British Southern Cameroons united with its neighbour to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC and fears of ethnic conflict to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.[6] His political party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966 and in 1972, the federal system of government was abolished in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from Yaoundé.[7] Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of planned liberalism, prioritising cash crops and petroleum exploitation. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.[8]

Ahidjo stepped down on November 4, 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, Paul Biya. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed coup d'état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.[9] An economic crisis took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and cronyism. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and privatised industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, Anglophone pressure groups called for greater autonomy, with some advocating complete secession as the Republic of Ambazonia.[10]

Politics and government

File:PaulBya Lula April 10 2005.jpg
President Paul Biya of Cameroon is greeted by President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil in 2005.

The President of Cameroon has broad, unilateral powers to create policy, administer government agencies, command the armed forces, negotiate and ratify treaties, and declare a state of emergency.[11] The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the prime minister (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors, divisional officers, and urban-council members in large cities. The president is selected by popular vote every seven years. In smaller municipalities, the public elects mayors and councilors. Corruption is rife at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,[12] and in 2006, Transparency International ranked Cameroon as the 138th most corrupt of 163 countries.[13] On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the National Anti-Corruption Observatory.[12]

A statue of a chief in Bana, West Province, shows the prestige afforded such rulers. The Cameroonian government recognizes the power of traditional authorities, provided their rulings do not contradict national law.

Cameroon's legal system is largely based on French civil law with common law influences.[14] Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's Ministry of Justice.[15] The president appoints judges at all levels. The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the court of appeal, and the supreme court. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member High Court of Justice that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.

Human rights organizations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, homosexuals, and political activists.[16] Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,[17][18] and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.[19] However, since the early 2000s, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.[18]

The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year. Laws are passed on a majority vote. Rarely has the assembly changed or blocked legislation proposed by the president.[15] The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat Senate, but this body has never been put into practice.[14] The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and lamibe to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.[20]

President Paul Biya's Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous ethnic and regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the Social Democratic Front (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by John Fru Ndi.[21] Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, but rivals contend that these have been unfair.[10] Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.[22][19] Freedom House ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties.[23] The last elections were held on October 11, 2004.

Cameroon is a member of both the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie. Its foreign policy closely follows that of its main ally, France.[24] The country relies heavily on France for its defence,[15] although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.[25] Biya has clashed with the government of Nigeria over possession of the Bakassi peninsula and with Gabon's president, El Hadj Omar Bongo, over personal rivalries.[26] Nevertheless, civil war presents a more credible threat to national security, as tensions between Christians and Muslims and between Anglophones and Francophones remain high.[27]

Education and health

A traditional doctor advertises his services in Tatum, Northwest Province. Such healers are popular alternatives to conventionally trained doctors.

Most children have access to free, state-run schools or subsidized, private and religious facilities.[28] The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents[29] with most instruction in English or French.[30] Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa.[28] Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage and pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south,[28] a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed.[18]

The quality of health care is generally low.[31] Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.[32] Endemic diseases include dengue fever, filariasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, meningitis, schistosomiasis, and sleeping sickness.[33] The HIV/AIDS seroprevalence rate is estimated at 5.4% for those aged 15–49,[34] although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low.[35] Traditional healers remain a popular alternative to Western medicine.[36]

Provinces and divisions

Cameroon is divided into 10 provinces.

The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected Regional Council. In practice, Cameroon still follows the system that was in place prior to the adoption of a new constitution in 1996. The country is divided into 10 provinces, each headed by a presidentially appointed governor. These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the provinces, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, gendarmes, and police.[37] The provinces are subdivided into 58 divisions (French départements). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers (prefets), who perform the governors' duties on a smaller scale. The divisions are further sub-divided into sub-divisions, headed by assistant divisional officers. The districts, administered by district heads, are the smallest administrative units. These are found in large sub-divisions and in regions that are difficult to reach.

The three northernmost provinces are the Far North, North, and Adamawa. Directly south of them are the Center and East. The South Province lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller provinces: The Littoral and Southwest provinces are on the coast, and the Northwest and West provinces are in the western grassfields. The Northwest and Southwest were once part of British Cameroons; the other provinces were in French Cameroun.

Geography and climate

Volcanic plugs dot the landscape near Rhumsiki, Far North Province.

It borders Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. At 475,442 square kilometres (183,569 sq mi), Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country, comparable in size to Papua New Guinea and somewhat larger than the U.S. state of California. The country is located in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna.[38] The highest point is Mount Cameroon in the southwest, and the largest cities are Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua.

Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends 15 to 150 kilometres (10 to 90 mi) inland from the Gulf of Guinea[39] and has an average elevation of 90 metres (295 ft).[40] Exceedingly hot and humid with a short dry season, this belt is densely forested and includes some of the wettest places on earth.[41][42] The South Cameroon Plateau rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of 650 metres (2,130 ft).[43] Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between wet and dry seasons makes it is less humid than the coast.

An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the Cameroon range extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 metres (13,435 ft)[44]—almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern tip. This region has a mild climate, particularly on the Western High Plateau, although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon.[45] Vulcanism here has created crater lakes. On 21 August 1986, one of these, Lake Nyos, belched toxic fumes and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people.[46]

The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged Adamawa Plateau. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is 1,100 metres (3,600 ft),[43] and its temperature ranges from 22 to 25 °C (72 to 77 °F) with high rainfall.[47] The northern lowland region extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of 300 to 350 metres (980 to 1,150 ft).[45] Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.

Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri. These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The Dja and Kadéï drain southeastward into the Congo River. In northern Cameroon, the Bénoué River runs north and west and empties into the Niger River. The Logone flows northward into Lake Chad, which Cameroon shares with three neighboring countries.

Economy and infrastructure

Cameroon's per-capita GDP (PPP) was estimated as US$2,421 in 2005,[48] high for an African country.[49] Major export markets include France, Italy, South Korea, Spain, and the United Kingdom.[14] Cameroon is part of the Bank of Central African States and the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC). Its currency is the CFA franc. Red tape, high taxes, and endemic corruption have impeded growth of the private sector.[50] Unemployment was estimated at 30% in 2001, and about 48% of the population was living below the poverty threshold in 2000.[14] Since 1997, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.[15] Tourism is a growing sector, particularly in the coastal area, around Mount Cameroon, and in the north.[51]

Tea, such as this bag produced by the Cameroon Development Corporation, is one of Cameroon's major cash crops.

Cameroon's natural resources are better suited to agriculture and forestry than to industry. An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 45.2% of GDP in 2006. Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs.[52] Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas, cocoa, oil palms, rubber, and tea. Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions favour crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Cameroon vulnerable to shifts in their prices.

A Fulani herder drives his cattle in northern Cameroon.

Livestock are raised throughout the country. Fishing employs some 5,000 people and provides 20,000 tons of seafood each year.[53] Bushmeat, long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.[54]

The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.[55] However, large areas of the forest are difficult to reach. Logging, largely handled by foreign-owned firms, provides the government US$60 million a year, and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber. Nevertheless, in practice, the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon.[56][57]

A bush taxi attempts to pass a stalled logging vehicle on the road between Abong-Mbang and Lomié, East Province.

Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 16.1% of GDP in 2006.[14] More than 75% of Cameroon's industrial strength is located in Douala and Bonabéri.[58] Cameroon possesses substantial mineral resources, but these are not extensively mined.[15] Petroleum exploitation has fallen since 1985, but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy.[59][14] Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy.[49] The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa.[60] The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.[61]

Transport in Cameroon is often difficult. Roads are poorly maintained[62] and subject to inclement weather, since only 10% of the roadways are tarred. Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travelers.[63] Rail service runs from Kumba in the west to Bélabo in the east and north to Ngaoundéré. International airports are located in Douala and Garoua with a smaller facility at Yaoundé. The Wouri River estuary provides a harbour for Douala, the country's principal seaport. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.

Although press freedoms have improved since the early 2000s, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups.[64] Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.[18] The major radio and television stations are state-run,[65] and other communications, such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, are largely under government control.[66] However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the early 2000s[67] and are largely unregulated.[19]

Demographics

Members of Tikar ethnic groups, such as this family, live in the Northwest Province.

2005 estimates place Cameroon's population at 17,795,000.[68] This population is young: an estimated 41.2% are under 15, and 96.7% are under 65. The birth rate is estimated at 33.89 births per 1,000 people, the death rate at 13.47. The life expectancy is 51.16 years (50.98 years for males and 51.34 years for females).

Cameroon's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers.[69] Population density is highest in the large urban centers, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain.[70] Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.[71] People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment.[72] Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east.[73] Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.[74]

English and French are the official languages.

Both monogamous and polygamous marriage are practiced, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended.[75] In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women is common.[76][18][19] At the onset of puberty, an estimated 26% of girls are subjected to breast ironing, a practice by which their breasts are pounded or massaged with heated objects to prevent them from developing. The goal is to prevent the girls from becoming precociously sexually active and to protect them from sexual assault.[77] Female genital mutilation is practiced in portions of the Far North and Southwest provinces.[17]

The homes of the Musgum, in the Far North Province, are made of earth and grass.

Estimates identify anywhere from 230 to 282 different ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon.[78][79] The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are Sudanese ethnic groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the Fulani, who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of Shuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of Bantu and Semi-Bantu languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Pygmies roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements.[80] War in the Central African Republic has driven more than 20,000 refugees to Cameroon's Adamawa and East provinces since 2002.[81] Nigerians, especially Igbo, make up the largest group of foreign nationals.[82]

Cameroon has a high level of religious freedom and diversity.[18] The northern peoples are predominantly Muslim, although some ethnic groups retain native animist beliefs and are called Kirdi ("pagan") by the Fulani. The U.S. Department of State claims that some Muslims discriminate against Christians and followers of traditional beliefs in the north.[18] Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow Christian or animist beliefs, or a syncretic combination of the two. People widely believe in witchcraft, and the government outlaws such practices.[83] Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.[18]

The European languages introduced during colonialism have created a linguistic divide between the English-speaking fifth of the population who live in the Northwest and Southwest provinces and the French-speaking remainder of the country.[84] Both English and French are official languages. Cameroonian Pidgin English is the most common lingua franca, especially in the formerly British-administered territories.[85] A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin called Camfranglais has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s.[86]

Culture

Baka dancers greet visitors to the East Province.
Holidays
Date English Name
1 January New Year's Day
11 February National Youth Day
1 May Labour Day
20 May National Day
15 August Assumption
1 October Unification Day
25 December Christmas

Each of Cameroon's ethnic groups has its own unique cultural forms. Typical celebrations include births, deaths, plantings, harvests, and religious rituals. Seven national holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holy days of Good Friday, Easter Sunday, Easter Monday, and Ascension; and the Muslim holy days of 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-Adha, and Eid Milad Nnabi.

Music and dance are an integral part of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.[87] Traditional dances are highly choreographed and separate men and women or forbid participation by one sex altogether.[88] The goals of dances range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.[89] Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.[90] Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stomping feet,[91] but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums and talking drums, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; the exact combination varies with ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs by themselves, accompanied by a harplike instrument.[90][92]

Popular music styles include ambasse bey of the coast, assiko of the Bassa, mangambeu of the Bangangte, and tsamassi of the Bamileke.[93] Nigerian music has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and Prince Nico Mbarga's highlife hit "Sweet Mother" is the top-selling African record in history.[94] The two most popular styles are makossa and bikutsi. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife, soul, and Congo music. Performers such as Manu Dibango, Francis Bebey, Moni Bilé, and Petit-Pays popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as Anne-Marie Nzié developed it into a popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as Mama Ohandja and Les Têtes Brulées popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.[95]

Cuisine varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams, maize, manioc, millet, plantains, potatoes, rice, or yams, often pounded into dough-like fufu (cous-cous). This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens, groundnuts, palm oil, or other ingredients.[96] Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions.[97] Dishes are often quite hot, spiced with salt, red pepper, and Maggi.[98] Water, palm wine, and millet beer are the traditional mealtime drinks, although beer, soda, and wine have gained popularity.[99] Silverware is common, but food is traditionally manipulated with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers or bread and fruit with coffee or tea. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought from street vendors.

A woman weaves a basket near Lake Ossa, Littoral Province. Cameroonians practice such handicrafts throughout the country.

Traditional arts and crafts are practices throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common.[100] The high-quality clay of the western highlands is suitable for pottery and ceramics.[89] Other crafts include basket weaving, beadworking, brass and bronze working, calabash carving and painting, embroidery, and leather working. Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials and vary from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadic Mbororo to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Dwellings made from materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common.[101]

Cameroon faces Germany at Zentralstadion in Leipzig, 27 April 2003.

Cameroonian literature and film have concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as Louis-Marie Pouka and Sankie Maimo were educated by European missionary societies and advocated assimilation into European culture as the means to bring Cameroon into the modern world.[102] After World War II, writers such as Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation.[103] Shortly after independence, filmmakers such as Jean-Paul Ngassa and Thérèse Sita-Bella explored similar themes.[104] In the 1960s, Mongo Beti and other writers explored post-colonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity.[105] Meanwhile, in the mid-1970s, filmmakers such as Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa and Daniel Kamwa dealt with the conflicts between traditional and post-colonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades concentrated more on wholly Cameroonian themes.[106]

National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the 40 km (24.8 mi) Mount Cameroon Race of Hope each year.[107] Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have competed in the Winter Olympics. However, sport in Cameroon is dominated by football (soccer). Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. The Cameroon national football team has been one of the most successful in the world since its strong showing in the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Cameroon has won four African Cup of Nations titles.[108]

Notes

  1. DeLancey and DeLancey 2.
  2. Fanso 84.
  3. 3.0 3.1 DeLancey and DeLancey 125.
  4. 4.0 4.1 DeLancey and DeLancey 5.
  5. DeLancey and DeLancey 4.
  6. 6.0 6.1 DeLancey and DeLancey 6.
  7. DeLancey and DeLancey 19.
  8. DeLancey and DeLancey 7.
  9. DeLancey and DeLancey 8.
  10. 10.0 10.1 DeLancey and DeLancey 9.
  11. "Background Notes: Cameroon; Neba 250.
  12. 12.0 12.1 IRIN, "New anti-corruption drive".
  13. 2006 Corruption Perceptions Index 2006.
  14. 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 "Cameroon," The World Factbook.
  15. 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 "Background Note: Cameroon".
  16. "Cameroon," Amnesty International; "Cameroon (2006)," Freedom House; "Cameroon," Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, U.S. Department of State; "Elections to the Human Rights Council," Amnesty International.
  17. 17.0 17.1 "Elections to the Human Rights Council".
  18. 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 "Cameroon," Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.
  19. 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 "Cameroon (2006)," Freedom House.
  20. "Background Note: Cameroon"; Neba 252.
  21. West 11.
  22. "Cameroon," Amnesty International.
  23. Cameroon is ranked a 6 in both categories on a scale of 1 to 7, with 1 being "most free" and 7 being "least free." "Cameroon (2006)," Freedom House.
  24. DeLancey and DeLancey 126; Ngoh 328.
  25. DeLancey and DeLancey 30.
  26. West 11.
  27. MacDonald 69.
  28. 28.0 28.1 28.2 Mbaku 15.
  29. DeLancey and DeLancey 105–6.
  30. Mbaku 16.
  31. DeLancey and DeLancey 21.
  32. West 64.
  33. West 58–60.
  34. "Cameroon," UNAIDS.
  35. DeLancey and DeLancey 21.
  36. Lantum and Monono 14.
  37. Neba 250.
  38. DeLancey and DeLancey 16.
  39. Fomesky et al 6.
  40. Neba 14.
  41. Neba 28.
  42. "Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes".
  43. 43.0 43.1 Neba 16.
  44. Neba 17.
  45. 45.0 45.1 Neba 17.
  46. DeLancey and DeLancey 161 report 1,700 killed; Hudgens and Trillo 1054 say "at least 2,000"; West 10 says "more than 2,000".
  47. Gwanfogbe et al 20; Neba 29.
  48. "World Economic and Financial Surveys".
  49. 49.0 49.1 West 12.
  50. Neba 132.
  51. Neba 173–6.
  52. Neba 208.
  53. Neba 185.
  54. West 24.
  55. Neba 189.
  56. Neba 195.
  57. West 23.
  58. Neba 170.
  59. Neba 158.
  60. Neba 160.
  61. Neba 161.
  62. Neba 199.
  63. Hudgens and Trillo 1036.
  64. "Cameroon - Annual Report 2007".
  65. Neba 207.
  66. Mbaku 20.
  67. Mbaku 20–1.
  68. World Population Prospects.
  69. West 3.
  70. Neba 109–11.
  71. Neba 111.
  72. Neba 105–6.
  73. Neba 106.
  74. Neba 103–4.
  75. Mbaku 139.
  76. Mbaku 141.
  77. Sa'ah.
  78. Neba 65, 67.
  79. West 13.
  80. Neba 48.
  81. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
  82. Neba 108.
  83. Geschiere 169–70.
  84. DeLancey and DeLancey 28.
  85. Neba 94.
  86. DeLancey and DeLancey 131; Niba.
  87. Mbaku 189; West 18.
  88. Mbaku 204.
  89. 89.0 89.1 West 18.
  90. 90.0 90.1 Mbaku 189.
  91. Mbaku 191.
  92. West 18–9.
  93. DeLancey and DeLancey 184.
  94. Mbaku 200.
  95. DeLancey and DeLancey 51; Nkolo & Ewens 443.
  96. West 84–5.
  97. Mbaku 121–2.
  98. Hudgens and Trillo 1047; Mbaku 122; West 84.
  99. Mbaku 121; Hudgens and Trillo 1048.
  100. West 17.
  101. Mbaku 110–3.
  102. Mbaku 80–1
  103. Fitzpatrick 38; Mbaku 77, 83–4; Volet.
  104. DeLancey and DeLancey 119–20; West 20.
  105. Mbaku 85–6.
  106. DeLancey and DeLancey 120.
  107. West 127.
  108. West 92–3, 127.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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External links



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