Bird migration
Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys of varying distances undertaken by many species of birds. The movements of birds includes those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. These however are usually irregular and are termed variously as nomadism, invasions or irruptions. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality.
General patterns
Many land birds migrate long distances. The most common pattern involves flying north to breed in the temperate or arctic summer and returning to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south.
(isn't this kind of eurocentric?) The primary advantage of migration is energetic. The long days of the northern summer provide greater opportunities for breeding birds to feed their young. The extended hours allow diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics year-round. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season.
These advantages offset the high stress, energetic costs, and other risks of the migration. Predation can be heightened during migration; the Eleonora's Falcon which breeds on Mediterranean islands has a very late breeding season, coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the Greater Noctule bat, which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants (Dondini, et al, 2000; Popa-Lisseanu, et al, 2007; Ibáñez, et al, 2001).
(why might partial migration evolve?) Within a species not all populations may be migratory and this is termed as partial migration. Partial migration is very common in the southern continents; in Australia, 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerine species were partially migratory (Chan, 2001). In some species the population at higher latitudes tend to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude past the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary and this is termed as leap-frog migration (Boland, 1990). Within a population, there can also be different patterns of timing and migration based on the age groups and sex. Only the female Chaffinches in Scandinavia migrate with the males staying resident. This has given rise to its specific name coelebs, a bachelor.
Migration is often concentrated along well established routes known as flyways. These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines, and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water. The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learnt to varying degrees.
The altitude at which birds fly during migration varies. An expedition to Mt. Everest found skeletons of Pintail and Black-tailed Godwit at 16,400 feet on the Khumbu Glacier (Geroudet, 1995). Bar-headed Geese have been seen flying over the highest peaks of the Himalayas above 29,000 feet even when low passes of 10,000 feet were nearby (Swan, 1970). Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land and the reverse pattern in seen in landbirds (Dorst, 1963; Eastwood and Rider, 1965). However most bird migration is in the range of 500 to 2000 feet. Bird hit records from the United States show most collisions below 2000 feet and almost none above 6000 feet (Williams, 1950).
Historical views
The earliest recorded observations of bird migration were 3000 years ago, as noted by Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus, Aristotle and others. The bible also notes migrations, as in the Book of Job (39:26), where the inquiry is made: "Doth the hawk fly by Thy wisdom and stretch her wings toward the south?" The author of Jeremiah (8:7) wrote: "The stork in the heavens knoweth her appointed time; and the turtledove, and the crane, and the swallow, observe the time of their coming."
Aristotle noted that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile. Ply the Elder in his Historia Naturalis repeats Aristotle's observations. Aristotle however suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated. This belief persisted as late as 1878, when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. It was not until early in the nineteenth century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted (Lincoln, 1979).
Long-distance migration
The typical image of migration is of northern landbirds such as swallows and birds of prey making long flights to the tropics. Many northern-breeding ducks, geese and swans are also long-distance migrants, but need only to move from their Arctic breeding grounds far enough south to escape frozen waters. Most Holarctic wildfowl species remain in the Northern hemisphere, but in countries with milder climates. For example, the Pink-footed Goose migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries. Migratory routes and wintering grounds are traditional and learned by young during their first migration with their parents. Some ducks, such as the Garganey, move completely or partially into the tropics.
The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long-distance land-bird migration apply to water birds, but in reverse: a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites is a barrier to a water bird. Open sea may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters. Detours avoiding such barriers are observed: for example, Brent Geese migrating from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Wadden Sea travel via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and northern Scandinavia.
A similar situation occurs with waders (called "shorebirds" in North America). Many species, such as Dunlin and Western Sandpiper, undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as Semipalmated Sandpiper travel huge distances to the tropics. Like the large and powerful wildfowl, the waders are strong fliers. This means that birds wintering in temperate regions have the capacity to make further shorter movements in the event of particularly inclement weather.
For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to "refuel" for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay.
Some Alaskan Bar-tailed Godwits have the longest non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km to their New Zealand non-breeding areas (BTO News 258: 3, 2005). Prior to migration, 55% of their bodyweight is stored fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.
Seabird migration is similar in patter to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as the Black Guillemot and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in winter. The Arctic Tern has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic Tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 miles). A few seabirds, such as Wilson's Petrel and Great Shearwater, breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter. Seabirds have the additional advantage of being able to feed during migration over open waters.
The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are also among the longest-distance migrants; Sooty Shearwaters nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (9,000 miles) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway. Some Manx Shearwaters do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx Shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan.
Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles, and buzzards, but also storks. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. The Mediterranean and other seas therefore present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which are forced to cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the Honey Buzzard, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the Central American migratory bottleneck.
Many of the smaller insectivorous birds including the warblers, hummingbirds and flycatchers migrate large distances, usually at night. They land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. The birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for short durations between the origin and destination (Schmaljohann, et al, 2007).
By migrating at night, nocturnal migrants minimize predation, and avoid overheating that could result from the energy expended to fly such long distances. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss (Rattenborg, et al, 2004).
Short-distance migration
Many of the long-distance migrants in the previous section are effectively genetically programmed to respond to changing lengths of days. However, many species move shorter distances, but may do so only in response to harsh weather conditions.
Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as Wallcreeper and White-throated Dipper, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as Merlin and Skylark will move further to the coast or to a more southerly region. Species like the Chaffinch are not migratory in Britain, but will move south or to Ireland in very cold weather.
Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those which have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the Chiffchaff, are species of southern hemisphere origins which have progressively shortened their return migration so that they stay in the northern hemisphere.
Those species which have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings, are effectively moving in response to winter weather, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.
In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for an adequate food supply. Apart from the seasonal movements of northern hemisphere wintering species, most species are in the broadest sense resident. However many species undergo movements of varying distances depending on the rainfall.
Many tropical regions have wet and dry seasons, the monsoons of India being perhaps the best known example. An example of a bird whose distribution is rain associated is the Woodland Kingfisher of west Africa.
There are a few species, notably cuckoos, which are genuine long-distance migrants within the tropics. An example is the Lesser Cuckoo, which breeds in India and spends the non-breeding season in Africa.
In the high mountains, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, there are also seasonal altitudinal movements in many species, and others may undertake migrations of considerable length. The Himalayan Kashmir Flycatcher and Pied Thrush both move as far south as the highlands of Sri Lanka.
Irruptions and dispersal
Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following lead to irruptions, in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian Waxwing and Common Crossbills are two species which show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers.
The temperate zones of the southern continents have extensive arid areas, particularly in Australia and western southern Africa, and weather-driven movements are common is not always predictable. A couple of weeks of heavy rain in one part or another of the usually dry centre of Australia, for example, causes dramatic plant and invertebrate growth, attracting birds from all directions. This can happen at any time of year, and, in any given area, may not happen again for a decade or more, depending on the frequency of El Niño and La Niña periods.
Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. In the Southern Hemisphere, seasonal migration tends to be much less obvious. There are several reasons for this.
First, the largely uninterrupted expanses of land mass or ocean tend not to funnel migrations into narrow and obvious pathways, making them less obvious to the human observer. Second, at least for terrestrial birds, climatic regions tend to fade into one another over a long distance rather than be entirely separate: this means that rather than make long trips over unsuitable habitat to reach particular destinations, migrant species can usually travel at a relaxed pace, feeding as they go. Short of banding studies it is often not obvious that the birds seen in any particular locality as the seasons change are in fact different members of the same species passing through, gradually working their way north or south.
Many species do in fact breed in the temperate southern hemisphere regions and winter further north in the tropics. The southern African Greater Striped Swallow, and the Australian Satin Flycatcher, Dollarbird, and Rainbow Bee-eaterfor example, winters well north of their breeding range.
Those smaller species that migrate during the day tend to be those making movements that are relatively short and weather-driven, like the larks and finches, or that can feed on the wing, like swallows and swifts.
Physiology and control
The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon which may include both endogenous programs as well as learning (Helm and Gwinner, 2006).
Timing
The primary physiological cue for migration are the changes in the day length. These changes are also related to hormonal changes in the birds.
In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (German: migratory restlessness) as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition (explain why fat might accumulate). The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenic programming in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, even changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.
Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has also been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields, use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues (Walraff, 2005).
The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps.
As the circannual patterns indicate, there is a strong genetic component to migration in terms of timing and route, but this may be modified by environmental influences. An interesting example where a change of migration route has occurred because of such a geographical barrier is the trend for some Blackcaps in central Europe to migrate west and winter in Britain rather than cross the Alps.
Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to long wavelengths are affected by the field. Note that although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is similar to a boy scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other facilities to use. The "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination (Wiltschko, et al, 2006).
Vagrancy
Migrating birds can lose their way and occur outside their normal ranges. These can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. A mechanism which can lead to great rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range is reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for migrating birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England. Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites.
Migration conditioning
It has been possible to teach a new migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada Geese, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced Whooping Cranes [1].
Such an effect can also happen naturally, as exemplified by the increasing tendency of Blackcaps to winter in Britain as described above.
Evolutionary and ecological factors
Whether a particular species migrates depends on a number of factors. The climate of the breeding area is important, and few species can cope with the harsh winters of inland Canada or northern Eurasia. Thus the partially migratory Blackbird Turdus merula is migratory in Scandinavia, but not in the milder climate of southern Europe. The nature of the staple food is also significant. Most specialist insect eaters outside the tropics are long-distance migrants, and have little choice but to head south in winter.
Sometimes the factors are finely balanced. The Whinchat Saxicola rubetra of Europe and the Siberian Stonechat Saxicola maura of Asia are long-distance migrants wintering in the tropics, whereas their close relative, the European Stonechat Saxicola rubicola is a resident bird in most of its range, and moves only short distances from the colder north and east. A possible factor here is that the resident species can often raise an extra brood.
Recent research suggests that long-distance passerine migrants are of South American and African, rather than northern hemisphere, evolutionary origins. They are effectively southern species coming north to breed rather than northern species going south to winter.
Theoretical analyses, summarized by Alerstam (2001), show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food in order to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's Thrush, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.
Study techniques
Bird migration has been studied by a variety of techniques of which ringing is the oldest. Color marking, use of radar, satellite tracking and stable Hydrogen and Strontium isotopes are some of the other techniques being used to study the migration of birds (Font et al, 2007).
Another approach to identify migration intensity makes use of upward pointing microphones to record the contact calls of overflying flocks. These are then analyzed in a laboratory to measure time, frequency and species (Farnsworth et al, 2004).
An older observational approach to studying the intensity of migration involves telescope observation of the face of the moon towards full moon and noting the flocks of birds as they fly at night (Liechti, 1996; Lowery, 1951).
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Dondini, G., Vergari, S. 2000 Carnivory in the greater noctule bat (Nyctalus lasiopterus) in Italy. Journal of Zoology 251: 233-236.
- Popa-Lisseanu, A. G., Delgado-Huertas, A., Forero, M. G., Rodriguez, A., Arlettaz, R. & Ibanez, C. 2007. Bats' conquest of a formidable foraging niche: the myriads of nocturnally migrating songbirds. PLoS ONE 2(2): e205. URL
- Ibáñez, C., Juste, J., García-Mudarra, J. L., Agirre-Mendi, P. T. 2001. Bat predation on nocturnally migrating birds. PNAS 98:9700-9702. full article.</ref>
- Boland, J. M. 1990. Leapfrog migration in North American shorebirds: intra- and interspecific examples. The Condor. 92:284-290 [2]
- Chan K (2001) "Partial migration in Australian landbirds: a review" Emu 101 (4): 281-292)
- Williams, G. G. 1950. Weather and spring migration. Auk 67: 52-65
- Geroudet, P. 1954. Des oiseaux migrateurs trouves sur la glacier de Khumbu dans l'Himalaya. Nos Oiseaux 22: 254.
- Swan, L. W. 1970. Goose of the Himalayas. Nat. Hist. 79(10): 68-75.
- Dorst, J. 1963. The migration of birds. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 476 p.
- Eastwood, E. and G. C. Rider. 1965. Some radar measurements of the altitude of bird flight. Br. Birds 58
- Lincoln, F. C. 1979 Migration of Birds. Fish and Wildlife Service. Circular 16. [3]
- Rattenborg, N.C., Mandt, B.H., Obermeyer, W.H., Winsauer, P.J., Huber, R.(2004) Migratory Sleeplessness in the White-Crowned Sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii). PLoS Biol 2(7): e212 [4]
- Schmaljohann, Heiko, Felix Liechti and Bruno Bruderer: Songbird migration across the Sahara: the non-stop hypothesis rejected! Proc Biol Sci. 2007 Mar 7;274(1610):735-739 "online first" DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2006.0011
- Helm B, Gwinner E (2006) Migratory Restlessness in an Equatorial Nonmigratory Bird. PLoS Biol 4(4): e110 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040110 [5]
- Walraff, H. G. 2005. Avian Navigation: Pigeon Homing as a Paradigm. Springer.
- Wiltschko, W., U. Munro, H. Ford & R. Wiltschko. (2006) "Bird navigation: what type of information does the magnetite-based receiver provide?" Proc. R. Soc. B. 273: 2815-20.
- Liechti, F. (1996) Instructions to count nocturnal bird migration by watching the full moon. Schweizerische Vogelwarte, CH-6204 Sempach, Switzerland.
- Lowery, G.H. (1951) A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History 3, 361-472
- Farnsworth, A., Gauthreaux, S.A., and van Blaricom, D. 2004. A comparison of nocturnal call counts of migrating birds and reflectivity measurements on Doppler radar. Journal of Avian Biology 35:365-369. [6]
- Laura Font, Geoff M. Nowell, D. Graham Pearson, Chris J. Ottley and Stephen G. Willis|title=Sr isotope analysis of bird feathers by TIMS: a tool to trace bird migration paths and breeding sites|journal=J. Anal. At. Spectrom.|year=2007|volume=22|page=513|id=DOI: 10.1039/b616328a}}
Further reading
- Alerstam, T. (2001). Detours in bird migration. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 209, 319-331.
- Berthold, Peter (2001) Bird Migration: A General Survey. Second Edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850787-9
- Dingle, Hugh. Migration: The Biology of Life on The Move. Oxford Univ. Press, 1996.
- Weidensaul, Scott. Living On the Wind: Across the Hemisphere With Migratory Birds. Douglas & McIntyre, 1999.
External links
- Trektellen.nl - Migration counts and ringing records The Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, France and Germany
- Canadian Migration Monitoring Network (Co-ordinates bird migration monitoring stations across Canada)
- Bird Research by Science Daily- includes several articles on bird migration
- The Nature Conservancy's Migratory Bird Program
- The Compasses of Birds - a review from the Science Creative Quarterly
- BBC Supergoose - satellite tagging of light-bellied brent geese
- Soaring with Fidel - follow the annual migration of ospreys from Cape Cod to Cuba to Venezuela
- Birder's Journal: A Morning With Migrants Nationalgeographic.com
- Discuss on bat predation
| Birds |
|---|
|
| Anatomy: Anatomy - Skeleton - Flight - Eggs - Feathers - Plumage |
| Evolution and extinction. Evolution - Archaeopteryx - Hybridisation - Late Quaternary prehistoric birds - Fossils - Taxonomy - Extinction |
| Behaviour: Singing - Intelligence - Migration - Reproduction- Brood parasites |
| Bird types: Seabirds - Shorebirds - Waterbirds - Song birds - Raptors - Poultry |
| Bird lists: Familes and orders - Lists by region |
| Birds and Humans: Ringing - Ornithology - Birdwatching - Birdfeeding - Conservation - Aviculture |
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