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[[Image:Universum.jpg|thumb|300px|Colour enhanced version of the [[Flammarion woodcut]]. The original was published in Paris in 1888.]]
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[[Image:Universum.jpg|thumb|300px|Color enhanced version of the Flammarion woodcut. The original was published in Paris in 1888.]]
  
'''Astrology''' is a group of [[system]]s, [[tradition]]s, and [[belief]]s in which knowledge of the relative positions of [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]] and related information is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about [[personality]], human affairs, and other terrestrial events. A practitioner of astrology is called an '''[[list of astrologers|astrologer]]''', or, less often, an astrologist. Historically, the term ''mathematicus'' was used to denote a person proficient in astrology, [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Galileo, Astrology and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look | publisher=Stanford | url=http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/colloquia0405.html | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Ultralingua Latin-English Dictionary | publisher=Ultralingua.Net | url=http://www.ultralingua.net/index.html?action=define&nv=0&text=mathematicus&service=&searchtype=stemmed&service=latin2english   | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref>
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'''Astrology''' is a group of [[system]]s, traditions, and [[belief]]s in which knowledge of the relative positions of celestial bodies and related information is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about [[personality]], human affairs, and other terrestrial events. The word ''astrology'' is derived from the Greek αστρολογία, from άστρον (''astron,'' "star") and λόγος (''[[logos]],'' "word"). The -λογία suffix is written in English as ''-logy,'' "study" or "discipline." A practitioner of astrology is called an '''astrologer,''' or, less often, an astrologist. Historically, the term ''mathematicus'' was used to denote a person proficient in astrology, [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]].<ref> Rutkin, Darrel H., [http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/colloquia0405.html Galileo, Astrology and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Ultralingua Online Dictionary, [http://www.ultralingua.net/index.html?action=define&nv=0&text=mathematicus&service=&searchtype=stemmed&service=latin2english Definition of “mathematicus.”] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
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{{toc}}
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Although the two fields share a common origin, modern [[astronomy]] is entirely distinct from astrology. While astronomy is the scientific study of astronomical objects and phenomena, the practice of astrology is concerned with the correlation between heavenly bodies (and measurements of the celestial sphere) and earthly and human affairs.<ref>Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrology Definition of “astrology.”] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Compact Oxford English Dictionary, [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/astrology?view=uk Definition of “astrology.”] Retrieved July 3, 2007.</ref> Astrology is variously considered by its proponents to be a [[symbolism|symbolic]] language, a form of art, a form of science, or a form of divination.<ref> Nègre, Alain, [http://cura.free.fr/quinq/02negre2.html A Transdisciplinary Approach to Science and Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Campion, Nick, Nick Campion's Online Astrology Resource: [http://www.nickcampion.com/nc/science/science.htm Science & Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrology Definition of “astrology.”] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Encyclopædia Britannica, [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356010/astrology astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> Critics generally consider astrology to be a pseudoscience or superstition as it has failed empirical tests in controlled studies.<ref> WordNet Search 3.0, [http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=astrology Definition of “astrology.”] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Fraknoi, Andrew, [http://www.astrosociety.org/education/astro/act3/astrology3.html#defense Activities With Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; The Scientific Exploration of Astrology, [http://www.rudolfhsmit.nl/u-case2.htm The Case For and Against Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
Although the two fields share a [[astrology and astronomy|common origin]], modern astronomy is entirely distinct from astrology. While astronomy is the [[science|scientific]] study of astronomical objects and phenomena, the practice of astrology is concerned with the correlation of heavenly bodies (and measurements of the celestial sphere) with earthly and human affairs.<ref name="mwebster">{{cite web | title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | publisher=Meriam-Webster | url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrology | accessdate=2006-07-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary | publisher=Oxford University Press | url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/astrology?view=uk | accessdate=2006-07-19}}</ref> Astrology is variously considered by its proponents to be a [[symbolism|symbolic]] language,<ref> {{cite web | title=<nowiki>Astrology FAQ, Basics for Beginners and Students
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==Beliefs==
of Astrology</nowiki> | author=Michael Star | url=http://home.istar.ca/~starman/astrofaq.shtml | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=A Transdisciplinary Approach to Science and Astrology | author=Alain Nègre | url=http://cura.free.fr/quinq/02negre2.html | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref> a form of [[art]],<ref name="Campion">{{cite web | title=Nick Campion's Online Astrology Resource: Science & Astrology | author=Nick Campion | url=http://www.nickcampion.com/nc/science/science.htm | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref> [[science]],<ref name="Campion"/> or [[divination]].<ref name="mwebster"/><ref>{{cite web | title="astrology." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006 | publisher=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia | url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356010/astrology | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref> Critics, including the [[scientific community]], generally consider astrology to be a [[pseudoscience]]<ref name="WordNet">{{cite web | title=WordNet 2.1 | publisher=Princeton | url=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=astrology | accessdate=2006-07-05}}</ref> or [[superstition]]<ref name="asotp">{{cite web | title=Activities With Astrology | publisher=Astronomical society of the Pacific | url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/astro/act3/astrology3.html#defense}}</ref> as it has failed empirical tests in controlled studies.<ref name="asotp"/><ref name="cfora">{{cite web | title=The case for and against astrology | publisher=Rudolf.H.Smit | url=http://www.rudolfhsmit.nl/u-case2.htm}}</ref>
 
  
The word ''astrology'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] αστρολογία, from άστρον (''astron'', "star") and λόγος (''[[logos]]'', "word"). The -λογία suffix is written in [[English language|English]] as ''[[-logy]]'', "study" or "discipline".
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[[Image:Astrological Glyphs.svg|thumb|right|250px|Astrological glyphs for some of the “planets” of astrology, including the [[Sun]], the [[Earth]], the [[Moon]], and [[Pluto]].]]
  
==Beliefs==
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The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in most of the ancient world and are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim "as above, so below." Tycho Brahe used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: ''suspiciendo despicio,'' "by looking up I see downward." Although the belief that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on earth was once generally held in most traditions of astrology around the world, in the West there has historically been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology and whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or portents of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.
[[Image:Astrological Glyphs.svg|thumb|right|250px|[[Astronomical symbols|Astrological glyphs]] for some of the [[planets in astrology|"planets" of astrology]], including the [[Sun]], the [[Earth]], the [[Moon]], and [[Pluto]].]]
 
  
The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in most of the ancient world and are epitomized in the [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] maxim "as above, so below". [[Tycho Brahe]] used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: ''suspiciendo despicio'', "by looking up I see downward". Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was once generally held in most traditions of astrology around the world, in the West there has historically been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology and whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or portents of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.
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While the connection between celestial mechanics and terrestrial dynamics was explored first by [[Isaac Newton]] with his development of a universal theory of gravitation, claims that the gravitational effects of the planets and the stars are what accounts for astrological generalizations are not substantiated by the scientific community, nor are they advocated by most astrologers.
  
While the connection between [[celestial mechanics]] and terrestrial [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]] was explored first by [[Isaac Newton]] with his development of a universal theory of [[gravitation]], claims that the gravitational effects of the planets and the stars are what accounts for astrological generalizations are not substantiated by the scientific community, nor are they advocated by most astrologers.
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Many of those who practice astrology believe that the positions of certain celestial bodies either influence or correlate with people's personality traits, important events in their lives, physical characteristics, and to some extent their destiny. Most modern astrologers believe that the cosmos (and especially the [[solar system]]) acts as "a single unit," so that any happening in any part of it inevitably is reflected in every other part. Skeptics dispute these claims, pointing to a lack of concrete evidence of significant influence of this sort.
  
Many of those who practice astrology believe that the positions of certain celestial bodies either influence or correlate with people's personality traits, important events in their lives, physical characteristics, and to some extent their destiny. Most modern astrologers believe that the cosmos (and especially the [[solar system]]) acts as "a single unit", so that any happening in any part of it inevitably is reflected in every other part. Skeptics dispute these claims, pointing to a lack of concrete evidence of significant influence of this sort.
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Most astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real or construed celestial bodies and on the construction of celestial patterns as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], the [[planet]]s, the [[star]]s and the lunar nodes. The calculations performed in casting a horoscope involve arithmetic and simple geometry, which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the tropical or sidereal zodiacal signs on one hand, and by the local horizon (Ascendant) and midheaven (''Medium Coeli'') on the other. This latter (local) frame is typically further divided into the twelve astrological houses.
  
Most astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real or construed celestial bodies and on the construction of celestial patterns as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], the [[planet]]s, the [[star]]s and the [[lunar node]]s. The calculations performed in casting a [[horoscope]] involve arithmetic and simple geometry, which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the [[tropical astrology|tropical]] or [[sidereal astrology|sidereal]] [[zodiac]]al signs on one hand, and by the local [[horizon]] ([[Ascendant]]) and [[midheaven]] (''Medium Coeli'') on the other. This latter (local) frame is typically further divided into the twelve [[house (astrology)|astrological houses]].
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In past centuries, astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements. Today astrologers use data drawn up by astronomers, which are transformed to a set of astrological tables, called ephemerides, that show the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time.
  
In past centuries, astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements. Today astrologers use data drawn up by [[astronomer]]s, which are transformed to a set of astrological tables  called [[ephemeris|ephemerides]], showing the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time.
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==Traditions==
  
==Traditions==
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[[Image:zodiac_woodcut.png|thumb|right|360px|Zodiac signs, sixteenth century European woodcut]]
[[Image:zodiac_woodcut.png|thumb|right|360px|[[Zodiac]] signs, 16th century [[European]] woodcut]]
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There are many different traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines from one culture to another. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold completely different doctrines, although they too share some similar features due to the fact that they are drawing on similar astronomical sources, i.e. planets, stars, etc.  
There are many different traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines from one culture to another. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold completely different doctrines, although they too share some similar features due to the fact that they are drawing on similar astronomical sources, i.e. planets, stars, etc.
 
  
Significant traditions of astrology include but are not limited to:
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Listed below are some significant traditions of astrology. They include, but are not limited to, the following:
*[[Babylonian astrology]]
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*Babylonian astrology
*[[Horoscopic astrology]] and its specific subsets
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*Horoscopic astrology and its specific subsets:
**[[Hellenistic astrology]]
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**Hellenistic astrology
**[[Jyotish]] or [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] astrology
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**Jyotish or Vedic astrology
**[[Islamic astrology|Persian-Arabic astrology]]
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**Persian-Arabic astrology
 
**Medieval & Renaissance horoscopic astrology
 
**Medieval & Renaissance horoscopic astrology
**Modern [[Western astrology]] with its specific subsets
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**Modern Western astrology with its specific subsets:
***Modern [[Tropical zodiac|tropical]] and [[sidereal astrology|sidereal]] horoscopic astrology
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***Modern Tropical and sidereal horoscopic astrology
***[[Hamburg School of Astrology]]
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***Hamburg School of Astrology
****[[Uranian astrology]], subset of the Hamburg School
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****Uranian astrology, subset of the Hamburg School
***[[Cosmobiology]]
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*****Cosmobiology
***[[Psychological astrology]] or astropsychology
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*****Psychological astrology or astropsychology
*[[Chinese astrology]]
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*Chinese astrology
*[[Kabbalistic astrology]]
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*Kabbalistic astrology
*[[Mesoamerican astrology]]
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*Mesoamerican astrology
**[[Aztec calendar|Nahuatl astrology]]
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**Nahuatl astrology
**[[Maya calendar|Maya astrology]]
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**Maya astrology
*[[Tibetan astrology]]
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*Tibetan astrology
*[[Celtic astrology]]
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*Celtic astrology
  
==Horoscopic astrology==
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==Horoscopic Astrology==
{{main|Horoscopic astrology}}
 
Horoscopic astrology is a very specific and complex system of astrology that was developed in the [[Mediterranean]] region and specifically [[Hellenistic Egypt]] sometime around the late 2nd or early 1st century B.C.E.<ref> David Pingree - ''From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner'', Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997. Pg. 26. </ref> This tradition deals largely with astrological charts cast for specific moments in time in order to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of the planets at that moment based on specific sets of rules and guidelines. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the [[ecliptic]] at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the [[ascendant]]. Horoscopic astrology has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology across the world, especially in [[Africa]], [[India]], [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology including [[Jyotish|Indian]], Hellenistic, Medieval, and most other modern Western traditions of astrology.
 
  
===The horoscope===
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Horoscopic astrology is a very specific and complex system of astrology that was developed in the Mediterranean region and specifically Hellenistic Egypt sometime around the late second or early first century B.C.E.<ref> Pingree, David, ''From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner.'' (Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997.), p 26. </ref> This tradition deals largely with astrological charts cast for specific moments in time in order to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of the planets at that moment based on specific sets of rules and guidelines. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the ecliptic at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the ascendant. Horoscopic astrology has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology across the world, especially in Africa, India, [[Europe]], and the Middle East, and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology including Indian, Hellenistic, Medieval, and most other modern Western traditions of astrology.
[[Image:Natal Chart — Adam.jpg|thumb|right|225px|A computer generated Western [[natal chart]] or [[horoscope chart]], a specific type of horoscope created for the moment of a person's birth.]]
 
Central to [[horoscopic astrology]] and its branches is the calculation of a [[horoscope]] or what has recently become known as an astrological chart. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a [[natal chart]] - horoscope chart. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the rising sign or [[ascendant]] demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope, and the word for the ascendant in Greek was ''horoskopos''. This is the word that the term "horoscope" derives from and in modern times it has come to be used as a general term for an astrological chart as a whole. Other commonly used names for the horoscope/natal chart in English include natus, birth-chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, nativity, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply ''chart'', among others.
 
  
===The tropical and sidereal zodiacs===
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===The Horoscope===
The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from Earth during a full year is called the [[ecliptic]]. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets, is called the [[zodiac]].
 
  
The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the [[tropical zodiac]], which evenly divides the ecliptic into 12 segments of 30 degrees each with the start of the Zodiac ([[Aries (astrology)|Aries]] 0°) being the Sun's position at the [[March equinox]]. The zodiacal signs in this system bear no relation to the [[constellation]]s of the same name but stay aligned to the months and seasons. The tropical zodiac is used as a historical coordinate system in [[astronomy]].
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Central to horoscopic astrology and its branches is the calculation of a horoscope or what has recently become known as an astrological chart. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on earth at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a natal chart—horoscope chart. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the rising sign, or ascendant, demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope, and the word for the ascendant in Greek was ''horoskopos.'' This is the word that the term "horoscope" derives from and in modern times it has come to be used as a general term for an astrological chart as a whole. Other commonly used names for the horoscope/natal chart in English include natus, birth-chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, nativity, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply ''chart,'' among others.
  
All [[Jyotish]] ([[Hindu]]) and a few Western astrologers use the [[sidereal zodiac]], which uses the same evenly divided ecliptic but which approximately stays aligned to the positions of the observable constellations with the same name as the zodiacal signs. The sidereal zodiac is computed from the tropical zodiac by adding an offset called [[Ayanamsa]]. This offset changes with the [[precession of the equinoxes]].
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===The Tropical and Sidereal Zodiacs===
  
[[Image:12_houses_of_heaven.jpg|left|thumb|225px|18th century [[Iceland]]ic manuscript showing [[astrological house]]s and planetary glyphs.]]
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The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from earth during a full year is called the ecliptic. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets, is called the zodiac.
  
===Branches of horoscopic astrology===
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The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac, which evenly divides the ecliptic into 12 segments of 30 degrees, each with the start of the Zodiac (Aries 0°) being the Sun's position at the March equinox. The zodiacal signs in this system bear no relation to the constellations of the same name but stay aligned to the months and seasons. The tropical zodiac is used as a historical coordinate system in astronomy.
Every tradition of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four specific branches which are directed towards specific subjects or used for specific purposes. Often this involves using a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area.  Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from the four fundamental branches.  
 
  
There are four major branches of horoscopic astrology.
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All Jyotish (Hindu) and a few Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac, which uses the same evenly divided ecliptic but which approximately stays aligned to the positions of the observable constellations with the same name as the zodiacal signs. The sidereal zodiac is computed from the tropical zodiac by adding an offset called Ayanamsa. This offset changes with the precession of the equinoxes.
*[[Natal astrology]], the study of a person's [[natal chart]] in order to gain information about the individual and his/her life experience.
 
*[[Katarchic astrology]], which includes both [[electional astrology|electional]] and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place.
 
*[[Horary astrology]], a system of astrology used to answer a specific question by studying the chart of the moment the question is posed to an astrologer.
 
*[[Mundane astrology|Mundane or world astrology]], is the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes and the rise and fall of empires or religions.
 
  
==History of astrology==
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[[Image:12_houses_of_heaven.jpg|left|thumb|225px|Eighteenth century [[Iceland]]ic manuscript showing astrological houses and planetary glyphs.]]
{{main|History of astrology}}
 
[[Image:Anatomical Man.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The anatomical-astrological human of antiquity showing believed correlations between areas of the body and astrological entities]]
 
  
=== Origins ===
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===Branches of Horoscopic Astrology===
The origins of much of astrology that would later develop in [[Asia]], [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]] are found among the ancient [[Babylonians]] and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. This system of celestial omens later spread either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians to other areas such as [[India]], [[China]] and [[Greece]] where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the 4th century B.C.E., and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century B.C.E. after the [[Alexander the Great#Period of conquests|Alexandrian conquests]], this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of Decanic astrology to create [[Horoscopic astrology]]. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in [[Alexandria|Alexandrian Egypt]], quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East and India.
 
  
===Before the scientific revolution===
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Every tradition of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four specific branches which are directed towards specific subjects or used for specific purposes. Often this involves using a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area. Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from the four fundamental branches.
  
From the classical period through the [[scientific revolution]], astrological training played a critical role in advancing astronomical, mathematical, medical and psychological knowledge. Insofar as the interpretation of supposed astrological influences included the observation and long-term tracking of celestial objects, it was often astrologers who provided the first systematic documentation of the movements of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and the stars. The differentiation between astronomy and astrology varied from place to place; they were indistinguishable in ancient [[Babylonia]] and for most of the [[Middle Ages]], but separated to a greater degree in ancient Greece (see [[Astrology and astronomy]] for more information). Astrology was not always uncritically accepted even before the modern era, as it was often being challenged by Hellenistic skeptics, church authorities and medieval thinkers.
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There are four major branches of horoscopic astrology:
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*Natal astrology—the study of a person's natal chart in order to gain information about the individual and the individual’s life experience.
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*Katarchic astrology—includes both electional and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place.
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*Horary astrology—a system of astrology used to answer a specific question by studying the chart at the moment the question is posed to an astrologer.
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*Mundane or world astrology—the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes, and the rise and fall of empires or religions.
  
The pattern of astronomical knowledge gained from astrological endeavours has been historically repeated across numerous cultures, from [[History of India|ancient India]] through the classical [[Maya civilization]] to medieval Europe. Given this historical contribution, astrology has been called a [[protoscience]] along with [[pseudoscience]]s such as [[alchemy]]. (see [[Astrology#Western astrology and alchemy|Western astrology and alchemy section]] below for more information).
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==History of Astrology==
  
Many prominent scientists, such as [[Nicholas Copernicus]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Carl Gustav Jung]] and others, practiced or significantly contributed to astrology.<ref>{{cite web | title=Were They Astrologers? — Big League Scientists and Astrology | author=Bruce Scofield | publisher=The Mountain Astrologer magazine | url=http://www.mountainastrologer.com/scofield.html | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref>
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[[Image:Anatomical Man.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The anatomical-astrological human of antiquity showing believed correlations between areas of the body and astrological entities]]
  
==Effects on world culture==
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=== Origins ===
[[Image:Beit Alpha.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Zodiac]] in a 6th century [[synagogue]] at Beit Alpha, [[Israel]].]]
 
Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures. In the middle ages, when even the learned of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below.
 
  
===Language===
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The origins of much of astrology that would later develop in Asia, [[Europe]], and the Middle East are found among the ancient Babylonians and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the second millennium B.C.E.. This system of celestial omens later spread from the Babylonians to other areas such as India, China, and Greece, where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the fourth century B.C.E., and then around the late second or early first century B.C.E. after the [[Alexander the Great|Alexandrian conquests]]. This Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in Alexandrian Egypt, quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East, and India.
[[Influenza]], from Medieval Latin influentia meaning influence, was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word "''disaster''" comes from the Latin "''dis-aster''" meaning "''bad star''". Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.
 
  
===Astrology as a descriptive language for the mind===
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===Before the Scientific Revolution===
Different astrological traditions are dependent on a particular culture's prevailing mythology. These varied mythologies naturally reflect the culture(s) they emerge from. Images from these mythological systems are usually understandable to natives of the culture they are a part of. Most classicists think that Western astrology is dependent on [[Greek mythology]].
 
  
Many writers, notably [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Astrology and English literature'' | author=A. Kitson | publisher= Contemporary Review, Oct 1996 |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_n1569_v269/ai_18920172  | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=''Essential Chaucer: Science, including astrology'' | author=M. Allen, J.H. Fisher | publisher=University of Texas, San Antonio |url=http://colfa.utsa.edu/chaucer/ec22.html | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=''Astronomy and Astrology in the Works of Chaucer'' | author=A.B.P. Mattar et al | publisher=University of Singapore | url=http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/gem-projects/hm/astronomy_and_astrology_in_the_works_of_chaucer.pdf | accessdate=2006-07-17}}</ref> and [[William Shakespeare]],<ref>{{cite web | title=''Shakespeare, Astrology, and Alchemy: A Critical and Historical Perspective'' | author=P. Brown | publisher= The Mountain Astrologer, Feb/Mar 2004 | url=http://www.astrofuturetrends.com/id19.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Shakespeare's Astrology | author=F. Piechoski | url=http://starcats.com/anima/shakespeare.html}}</ref> used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters' motivation(s). An understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature. Some modern thinkers, notably [[Carl Jung]],<ref name="Jung">Carl G. Jung, "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious," excerpted in ''The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung'' (Modern Library, repr. 1993), 362-363.</ref> believe in its descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims. Consequently, some look at astrology as a way of learning about one self and one's motivations.  Increasingly, psychologists and historians <ref>Richard Tarnas, ''Cosmos and Psyche: Intimations of a New World View'' Viking (New York, 2006.) ISBN 0-670-03292-1.</ref> have become interested in Jung's theory of the fundamentality and indissolubility of archetypes in the human mind and their correlation with the symbols of the horoscope.
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From the classical period through the [[scientific revolution]], astrological training played a critical role in advancing astronomical, mathematical, medical, and psychological knowledge. Insofar as the interpretation of supposed astrological influences included the observation and long-term tracking of celestial objects, it was often astrologers who provided the first systematic documentation of the movements of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and the stars. The differentiation between astronomy and astrology varied from place to place; they were indistinguishable in ancient Babylonia, but separated to a greater degree in ancient Greece. The Greeks saw astronomy and astrology as being separate. This idea became widely accepted around the time of the "Great Astronomers," Galileo, Kepler, Brahe, etc., most of which practiced both. Even in those times, astrology was often challenged by Hellenistic skeptics, church authorities, and medieval thinkers.
  
===Western astrology and alchemy===
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The pattern of astronomical knowledge gained from astrological endeavors has been historically repeated across numerous cultures, from ancient India through the classical Mayan civilization to medieval Europe. Given this historical contribution, astrology has been called a protoscience along with pseudosciences such as [[alchemy]].  
[[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from 17th century [[alchemy]] text.]]
 
{{main|Astrology and alchemy}}
 
[[Alchemy]] in the [[Western World]] and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for [[occult|hidden knowledge]]. Astrology has used the concept of [[classical elements]] from antiquity up until the present. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart. Traditionally, each of the seven [[planet]]s in the [[solar system]] as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ''[[astrological sign|ruled]]'' a certain [[metal]]. See also: [[Astrology and the classical elements]]
 
  
===The seven liberal arts and Western astrology===
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Many prominent scientists, such as Nicholas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], and [[Carl Gustav Jung]] practiced or significantly contributed to astrology.
In [[medieval Europe]], a [[university education]] was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular [[planet]] and known as the Seven [[Liberal Arts]].  
 
  
[[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. As the arts were seen as operating in ascending order, so were the planets and so, in decreasing order of planetary speed, [[Grammar]] was assigned to the quickest moving [[celestial body]] (the [[Moon]]), [[Dialectic]] to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], [[Rhetoric]] to [[Venus]], [[Music]] to the [[Sun]], [[Arithmetic]] to [[Mars]], [[Geometry]] to [[Jupiter]] and [[Astrology and astronomy|Astronomia]] to the slowest moving [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].{{fact}} After this sequence, [[wisdom]] was supposed to have been achieved by the [[medieval]] university [[student]].
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==Effects on World Culture==
  
==Astrology and science==
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[[Image:Beit Alpha.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Zodiac]] in a sixth century [[synagogue]] at Beit Alpha, [[Israel]].]]
 +
Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on both Western and Eastern cultures. In the middle ages, when even the educated of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below.
  
[[Image:Cellarius ptolemaic system.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Ptolemaic system]] depicted by [[Andreas Cellarius]], 1660/61]]
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===Language===
  
===The modern era===
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“Influenza,” from Medieval Latin ''influentia'' meaning “influence,” was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word “disaster" comes from the Latin ''dis-aster'' meaning "bad star." Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.
By the time of [[Francis Bacon]] and the scientific revolution, newly emerging scientific disciplines acquired a method of systematic empirical induction validated by experimental observations, which lead to the [[scientific revolution]]<ref>{{cite web | title= The scientific revolution | url=http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ENLIGHT/SCIREV.HTM}}</ref>. At this point, astrology and astronomy began to diverge; astronomy became one of the central sciences while astrology was increasingly viewed as an occult science or superstition by natural scientists. This separation accelerated through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.<ref name="Tester">Jim Tester, ''A History of Western Astrology'' (Ballantine Books, 1989), 240ff.</ref>
 
  
Within the contemporary [[scientific community]], astrology is generally labeled as a pseudoscience,<ref name="WordNet"/><ref>{{cite web | title=Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List | publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific | url=http://128.241.173.3/education/resources/pseudobib.html#1}}</ref><ref name="NSF1"/> and it has been criticized as being unscientific both by scientific bodies and by individual scientists.<ref>{{cite web | title=''The Real Romance in the Stars'' | author=Richard Dawkins | publisher= The Independent, December 1995 | url=http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.shtml}}</ref>
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===Astrology as a Descriptive Language for the Mind===
<ref>{{cite web | title=British Physicist Debunks Astrology in Indian Lecture | publisher=Associated Press | url=http://www.beliefnet.com/story/63/story_6346_1.html}}</ref> In 1975, the [[American Humanist Association]] published one of the most widely known modern criticisms of astrology, characterizing those who continue to have faith in the subject as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary".<ref name="humanist">{{cite web | title=<nowiki>Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists</nowiki> | publisher=<nowiki>The Humanist, September/October 1975</nowiki> | url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html}}</ref> Astronomer [[Carl Sagan]] did not sign the statement, noting that, while he felt astrology lacked validity, he found the statement's tone [[authoritarian]]. He suggested that the lack of a causal mechanism for astrology (see [[Astrology#Causality|below]]) was relevant but not in itself convincing.<ref name="Sagan">Sagan, Carl. "Letter." The Humanist 36 (1976): 2</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Astrology: What it is and what it isn't, | author=Mariapaula Karadimas | publisher=The Peak Publications Society | url=http://www.peak.sfu.ca/the-peak/2006-1/issue7/fe-astro.html}}</ref>
 
  
Although astrology has had no accepted scientific standing for three centuries, it has been the subject of much research among astrologers since the beginning of the twentieth century. In his landmark study of twentieth-century research into natal astrology, vocal astrology critic Geoffrey Dean noted and documented the burgeoning research activity, primarily within the astrological community.<ref name="Dean">G. Dean et al, ''Recent Advances in Natal Astrology: A Critical Review 1900-1976''. The Astrological Association (England 1977)</ref>
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Different astrological traditions are dependent on a particular culture's prevailing mythology. These varied mythologies naturally reflect the cultures they emerge from. Images from these mythological systems are usually understandable to natives of the culture. Most classicists think that Western astrology is dependent on Greek mythology.
  
==== Claims about obstacles to research ====
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Many writers, notably [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] and [[William Shakespeare]], used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters' motivations.<ref> Kitson, A., [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_n1569_v269/ai_18920172 Astrology and English Literature.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Allen, M., and Fisher, J. H., [http://colfa.utsa.edu/chaucer/ec22.html Essential Chaucer: Science, Including Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Mattar, A. B. P., et al, [http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/gem-projects/hm/astronomy_and_astrology_in_the_works_of_chaucer.pdf Astronomy and Astrology in the Works of Chaucer.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Brown, P., [http://www.astrofuturetrends.com/id19.html Shakespeare and Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Piechoski, F., [http://starcats.com/anima/shakespeare.html Shakespeare's Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> An understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature. Some modern thinkers, notably [[Carl Jung]], believe in its descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims.<ref> Jung, Carl G., "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious." ''The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung.'' (Modern Library, 1993.), p 362-363.</ref> Consequently, some look at astrology as a way of learning about oneself and one's motivations. Increasingly, psychologists and historians have become interested in Jung's theory of the fundamentality and indissolubility of archetypes in the human mind and their correlation with the symbols of the horoscope.<ref> Tarnas, Richard, ''Cosmos and Psyche: Intimations of a New World View'' (New York: Viking, 2006). ISBN 0-670-03292-1</ref>
Astrologers have argued that there are significant obstacles to carrying out scientific research into astrology today, including funding<ref name="Harding">{{cite web | title=Prejudice in Astrological Research | author=M. Harding | publisher=Correlation, Vol 19(1) | url=http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm}}</ref><ref name="Eysenck">H.J. Eysenck & D.K.B. Nias, ''Astrology: Science or Superstition?'' Penguin Books (1982) ISBN 0-14-022397-5</ref><ref name="Phillipson">G. Phillipson, ''Astrology in the Year Zero''. Flare Publications (London, 2000) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1</ref>, lack of background in science and statistics by astrologers<ref name="Harding">{{cite web | title=School History | publisher=The Avalon School of Astrology | url=http://www.avalonastrology.com/History.htm}}</ref>, and insufficient  expertise in astrology by research scientists to test astrological claims.<ref name="Harding"/><ref name="Eysenck"/><ref name="Phillipson"/> There are only a handful of journals dealing with scientific research into astrology (i.e. astrological journals directed towards scientific research or scientific journals publishing astrological research). Some astrologers have argued that few practitioners today pursue scientific testing of astrology because they feel that working with clients on a daily basis provides a personal validation for them.<ref name="Phillipson"/><ref name="Irving">{{cite web | title=Science, Astrology and the Gauquelin Planetary Effects | author=K. Irving | url=http://www.planetos.info/sciast1.html}}</ref>
 
  
Some astrologers argue that most studies of astrology do not reflect the nature of astrological practice and that existing experimental methods and research tools are not adequate for studying this complex discipline.<ref name="MUL-MVA">M. Urban-Lurain, ''Introduction to Multivariate Analysis'', Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref><ref name="Perry">G. Perry, ''How do we Know What we Think we Know? From Paradigm to Method in Astrological Research'', Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref> Some astrology proponents claim that the prevailing attitudes and motives of many opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of hypotheses to be tested, the conduct of the tests, and the reporting of results.<ref name="Harding"/>
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===Western Astrology and Alchemy===
[[Image:God the Geometer.jpg|thumb|225px|Early '[[science]],' particularly [[geometry]] and [[Astrology and astronomy|astronomy/astrology]], was connected to the divine for most [[History of science in the Middle Ages|medieval scholars]]. The [[compass]] in this [[13th Century]] manuscript is a symbol of God's act of [[Creation (theology)|Creation]], as many believed that there was something intrinsically "divine" or "perfect" that could be found in [[circle]]s]]
 
  
====Mechanism====
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[[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from seventeenth century [[alchemy]] text.]]
Many critics claim that a central problem to astrology is the lack of evidence for a scientifically defined mechanism by which celestial objects can supposedly influence terrestrial affairs.<ref name="asp11">{{cite web | title=Horoscopes Versus Telescopes: A Focus on Astrology | publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific | url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/11/11.html}}</ref> Astrologers claim that a lack of an explanatory mechanism would not scientifically invalidate astrological findings.<ref name="Harding"/> Though physical mechanisms are still among the [[proposed theories of astrology]],<ref name="Seymour">Dr. P. Seymour, ''Astrology: The evidence of Science.'' Penguin Group (London, 1988) ISBN 0-14-019226-3</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Pineal Gland and the Ancient Art of Iatromathematica | author=Frank McGillion | url=http://www.astrology-research.net/researchlibrary/Iatr/pineal.htm}}</ref> few modern astrologers believe in a direct causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events.<ref name="Phillipson"/> Some have posited [[acausal]], purely [[correlative]], relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of [[synchronicity]]<ref> Maggie Hyde, Jung and Astrology. The Aquarian Press (London, 1992) p. 24-26. </ref> proposed by [[Carl Jung|Jung]]. [[Astrophysicist]] Victor Mansfield suggests that astrology should draw inspiration from [[quantum physics]]<ref name="vmansfield">{{cite web | title=An Astrophysicist's Sympathetic and Critical View of Astrology | author=Victor Mansfield | url=http://www.lightlink.com/vic/astrol.html}}</ref> Others have posited a basis in [[divination]].<ref name="Cornelius">Geoffrey Cornelius, The Moment of Astrology. Utsav Arora, another meditation research specialist and astrologer, argues, "if 100% accuracy were to be the benchmark, we shoud be closing down and shutting all hospitals, medical labs. Scientific medical equipment and drugs have a long history of errors and miscalculations. Same  is the case with  computers and electronic. We dont refute electronic gadgets and equipment just because it fails but we work towards finding cures for the errors." The Wessex Astrologer (Bournemouth, 2003.)</ref> Still others have argued that empirical correlations can stand on their own [[epistemology|epistemologically]], and do not need the support of any theory or mechanism.<ref name="Harding"/> To some observers, these non-mechanistic concepts raise serious questions about the feasibility of validating astrology through scientific testing, and some have gone so far as to reject the applicability of the scientific method to astrology almost entirely.<ref name="Harding"/><ref name="Campion"/> Some astrologers, on the other hand, believe that astrology is amenable to the scientific method, given sufficiently sophisticated analytical methods, and they cite pilot studies they claim support this view.<ref name="HARASTRES">D. Cochrane, ''Towards a Proof of Astrology: An AstroSignature for Mathematical Ability'' International Astrologer ISAR Journal Winter-Spring 2005, Vol 33, #2</ref> Consequently, a number of astrologers have called for or advocated continuing studies of astrology based on statistical validation.<ref>M. Pottenger (ed), ''Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology.'' International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref>
+
[[Alchemy]] in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the [[solar system]] as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ''ruled'' a certain [[metal]].
  
====Research claims and counter-claims====
+
===The Seven Liberal Arts and Western Astrology===
[[Image:Marseffect.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Mars effect]]: Relative frequency of the [[diurnal motion|diurnal position]] of [[Mars]] in the [[Natal chart|birth chart]] of eminent athletes]]
 
[[Image:Durer astronomer.jpg|thumb|225px|An engraving by [[Albrecht Dürer]] featuring [[Mashallah]], from the title page of the ''De scientia motus orbis'' (Latin version with engraving, 1504).  As in many medieval illustrations, the [[Compass (drafting)|compass]] here is an icon of religion as well as science, in reference to God as the architect of creation]]
 
Several individuals, most notably French psychologist and statistician [[Michel Gauquelin]], claimed to have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain human traits such as vocations. Gauquelin's most widely known claim is known as the [[Mars effect]], which is said to demonstrate a correlation between the planet Mars occupying certain positions in the sky more often at the birth of eminent sports champions than at the birth of ordinary people. Since its original publication in 1955, the Mars effect has been the subject of studies claiming to refute it,<ref>Benski, C. et al. 1996. The "Mars Effect": A French Test of Over 1000 Sports Champions.</ref><ref>Zelen, M., P. Kurtz, and G. Abell. 1977. Is there a Mars effect? The Humanist 37 (6): 36-39.</ref> and studies claiming to support and/or expand the original claims,<ref>{{cite web | title=Raising the Hurdle for the Athletes' Mars Effect: Association Co-Varies With Eminence | url=http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v2n1a4.php | author=Suitbert Ertel | publisher=Journal of Scientific Exploration}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Discussion of Mars eminence effect | url=http://www.planetos.info/mmf.html | author=Ken Irving | publisher=Planetos}}</ref><ref name="Kollerstrom">{{cite web | title=How Ertel rescued the Gauquelin effect | url=http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/koll1ge.pdf | author=N. Kollerstrom }}</ref> but neither the claims nor the counterclaims have received mainstream scientific notice.
 
  
Besides the Mars-athletes claims, astrological researchers claim to have found statistical correlations for physical attributes,<ref>O'Neil, Mike. "The Switching Control Applied to Hill and Thompson's Redhead Data" ''Correlation'', vol. 11(1) p. 24 (1991)</ref> accidents,<ref>{{cite web | title=Astrologically Predictable Patterns in Work Related Injuries | url=http://safire.net/sara/introduction.html | author=Ridgley, Sara K | publisher=Kosmos, XXII [3], 1993, pp.21-30}}</ref><ref>N. Kollerstrom. ''Investigating Aspects'', Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref> personal and mundane events,<ref name="Gillman">{{cite web | title=The Effect of Planets in their own Signs | url=http://www.considerations-mag.com/articles/effectOfPlanets.htm | author=K. Gillman | publisher=Considerations X.4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Sunny Day for a Wedding | url=http://www.aureas.org/rams/castille02us.pdf | author=Castille, Didier | publisher=Les cahiers du RAMS}}</ref> social trends such as economics<ref name="Merriman">R. Merriman, ''Research for Financial Astrology Studies'', Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Are Investors Moonstruck? | url=http://lunar.behaviouralfinance.net/YuZZ01.pdf | author=Yuan, Kathy; Zheng, Lu; Zhu, Qiaoqiao}}</ref> and large geophysical patterns.<ref>{{cite web | title=Planetary Aspects and Terrestrial Earthquakes | url=http://cura.free.fr/xv/13brianj.html | author=Johnston, Brian T}}</ref> None of these claims were published in a mainstream scientific journal.
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In medieval Europe, a university education was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the Seven Liberal Arts.  
  
The scientific community, where it has commented, claims that astrology has repeatedly failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in numerous controlled studies.<ref name="asotp"/> [[Effect size]] studies in astrology, conclude that the mean accuracy of astrological predictions is no greater than what is expected by chance, and astrology's perceived performance has disappeared on critical inspection<ref>{{cite web | title=How astrology compares with other approaches | author=Rudolf.H.Smit | url=http://rudolfhsmit.nl/d-effe2.htm}}</ref><ref name="Psi">{{cite web | title=<nowiki>Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?</nowiki> | author=Dean and Kelly | url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf}}</ref>. When tested against [[personality test]]s, astrologers have shown a consistent lack of agreement with these tests. One such [[double-blind]] study in which astrologers attempted to match birth charts with results of a personality test, which was published in the reputable [[peer-reviewed]] [[scientific journal]]'' [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', claimed to refute astrologers' assertions that they can solve clients' personal problems by reading [[natal chart]]s. The study concluded that astrologers had no special ability to interpret personality from astrological readings<ref>{{cite web | title=<nowiki>A double-blind test of astrology</nowiki> | author=Shawn Carlson | publisher=Nature, 318, 419 - 425 (05 December 1985) | url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v318/n6045/abs/318419a0.html}}</ref><ref name="carlson">{{cite web | title=Skeptical Studies in Astrology, report of Shawn Carlson's double-blind test of astrology published in Nature | publisher=Tom Howell Productions | url=http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/AstroSkc.htm}}</ref> Another study that used a personality test and a questionnaire contended that some astrologers failed to predict objective facts about people or agree with each other's interpretations.<ref>{{cite web | title=<nowiki>The Astrotest - Correlation</nowiki> | author=Rob Nanninga | publisher=Northern Winter, 1996/97, 15(2), p. 14-20.  | url=http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html}}</ref> When testing for [[cognitive]], [[behavioral]], [[physical]] and other variables, one study of astrological "time twins" claimed that human characteristics are not molded by the influence of the sun, moon and planets at the time of birth<ref name="Psi"/><ref name="wimtes">{{cite news |author = Robert Matthews |url = http://www.washtimes.com/world/20030817-105449-9384r.htm |title = Comprehensive study of 'time twins' debunks astrology | publisher = London Daily Telegraph |date = 2003-08-17 |language = English}}</ref>. Skeptics of astrology also suggest that the perceived accuracy of astrological interpretations and descriptions of one's personality can be accounted for by the [[Confirmation bias|fact]] that we tend to exaggerate positive 'hits' and overlook whatever does not really fit, especially when [[Forer effect|vague language is used]].<ref name="Psi"/> They also claim that statistical research is often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology due to uncontrolled artifacts.<ref>{{cite web | title=Artifacts in data often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology | url=http://www.rudolfhsmit.nl/d-arti2.htm | author=Geoffery Dean}}</ref> It has also been suggested that the failed tests of researchers who are critical of astrology stem from the testers' failure to understand astrology and its limitations.<ref name="Harding"/>
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[[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. As the arts were seen as operating in ascending order, so were the planets and so, in decreasing order of planetary speed, Grammar was assigned to the quickest moving celestial body (the [[Moon]]), [[Dialectic]] to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], Rhetoric to [[Venus (planet)|Venus]], [[Music]] to the [[Sun]], Arithmetic to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], [[Geometry]] to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and Astronomia to the slowest moving [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]. After this sequence, wisdom was supposed to have been achieved by the medieval university student.
  
==See also==
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==Astrology and Science==
{{col-begin}}
 
{{col-2}}
 
*[[List of astrologers]]
 
*[[Age of Aquarius]]
 
*[[Ascending planet]]
 
*[[Astrological age]]
 
*[[Astrological associations]]
 
*[[Astrological degrees]]
 
*[[Astrological symbol]]
 
*[[Astrology and astronomy]]
 
*[[Astrology and computers]]
 
*[[Astrology and numerology]]
 
*[[Domicile (astrology)|Domicile]]
 
*[[House (astrology)]]
 
*[[Katarche]]
 
*[[List of magical terms and traditions]]
 
{{col-2}}
 
*[[Lunation]]
 
*The [[Mars effect]]
 
*[[Medical astrology]]
 
*[[New age]]
 
*[[Nadi astrology]]
 
*[[Occult]]
 
*[[Ophiuchus#Astrology|Ophiuchus]] (arbitrary star constellation)
 
*[[Planets in astrology]]
 
*[[Proposed theories of astrology]]
 
*[[Rosicrucian#Rose Cross: Alchemy and Divine Sciences of Healing .26 of the Stars|Rose Cross and Astrology]]
 
*[[Sidereal astrology]]
 
*[[Tropical year]]
 
{{col-end}}
 
  
==Notes and references==
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===The Modern Era===
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
 
  
==Further reading==
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By the time of [[Francis Bacon]] and the scientific revolution, newly emerging scientific disciplines acquired a method of systematic empirical induction validated by experimental observations, which lead to the [[scientific revolution]].<ref> Hooker, Richard, [http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ENLIGHT/SCIREV.HTM The Scientific Revolution.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> At this point, astrology and astronomy began to diverge; astronomy became one of the central sciences while astrology was increasingly viewed by natural scientists as an occult science or superstition. This separation accelerated through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.<ref> Tester, Jim, ''A History of Western Astrology.'' (Ballantine Books, 1989.) </ref>
  
* [[David Berlinski]], ''The Secrets of the Vaulted Sky: Astrology and the Art of Prediction''. Harcourt (USA, October 2003) ISBN 0151005273.
+
Within the contemporary scientific community, astrology is generally labeled as a pseudoscience and it has been criticized as being unscientific both by scientific bodies and by individual scientists.<ref> WordNet Search 3.0, [http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=astrology Definition of “astrology.”] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Dawkins, Richard, [http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.shtml The Real Romance in the Stars.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Beliefnet.com, [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/63/story_6346_1.html British Physicist Debunks Astrology in Indian Lecture.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> In 1975 the American Humanist Association published one of the most widely known modern criticisms of astrology, characterizing those who continue to have faith in the subject as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary."<ref> Bok, Bart J. et al, [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> Astronomer Carl Sagan did not sign the statement, noting that, while he felt astrology lacked validity, he found the statement's tone authoritarian. He suggested that the lack of a causal mechanism for astrology was relevant but not in itself convincing.<ref> Sagan, Carl, "Letter." ''The Humanist'' 36 (1976): 2; Karadimas, Mariapaula, [http://www.peak.sfu.ca/the-peak/2006-1/issue7/fe-astro.html Astrology: What it is and what it isn't.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
* Geoffrey Cornelius, ''Moment of Astrology''. Wessex Astrologer Ltd. (UK, August 2005) ISBN 1902405110.
+
Although astrology has had no accepted scientific standing for three centuries, it has been the subject of much research among astrologers since the beginning of the twentieth century. In his landmark study of twentieth-century research into natal astrology, vocal astrology critic Geoffrey Dean noted and documented the burgeoning research activity, primarily within the astrological community.<ref> Dean, G. et al, ''Recent Advances in Natal Astrology: A Critical Review 1900-1976.'' (England: The Astrological Association, 1977.)</ref>
  
* Nicholas De Vore, ''Encyclopedia of Astrology''. Astrology Classics (New York, 2005) ISBN 1933303093.
+
==== Claims about Obstacles in Research ====
  
* J. C. Eade, ''The Forgotten Sky: A Guide to Astrology in English Literature''. Oxford University Press (USA, 1984) ISBN 0198128134.
+
Astrologers have argued that there are significant obstacles in the way of carrying out scientific research into astrology today, including funding, lack of background in science and statistics by astrologers, and insufficient expertise in astrology by research scientists to test astrological claims.<ref> Harding, M., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm Prejudice in Astrological Research.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Eysenck, H. J., and Nias, D. K. B., ''Astrology: Science or Superstition?'' (Penguin Books, 1982.) ISBN 0-14-022397-5; Phillipson, G., ''Astrology in the Year Zero.'' (London: Flare Publications, 2000.) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1; Avalon School of Astrology, [http://www.avalonastrology.com/History.htm Avalon School History.] Retrieved July 3, 2007.</ref> There are only a handful of journals dealing with scientific research into astrology (i.e. astrological journals directed towards scientific research or scientific journals publishing astrological research). Some astrologers have argued that few practitioners today pursue scientific testing of astrology because they feel that working with clients on a daily basis provides a personal validation for them.<ref> Phillipson, G., ''Astrology in the Year Zero.'' (London: Flare Publications, 2000.) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1; Irving, K., [http://www.planetos.info/sciast1.html Science, Astrology, and the Gauquelin Planetary Effects.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
* [[Michel Gauquelin]], ''Cosmic Influences on Human Behavior''. Aurora Press (Santa Fe, NM; June 1985) ISBN 094335823X.
+
Some astrologers argue that most studies of astrology do not reflect the nature of astrological practice and that existing experimental methods and research tools are not adequate for studying this complex discipline.<ref> Urban-Lurain, M., “Introduction to Multivariate Analysis,''Astrological Research Methods,'' Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3; Perry, G., “How Do We Know What We Think We Know? From Paradigm to Method in Astrological Research,” ''Astrological Research Methods,'' Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref> Some astrology proponents claim that the prevailing attitudes and motives of many opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of hypotheses to be tested, the conduct of the tests, and the reporting of results.<ref> Harding, M., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm Prejudice in Astrological Research.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
* Michel Gauquelin, ''The Scientific Basis of Astrology''. Stein and Day Publishers (New York, 1970) ISBN 0812813502.
+
[[Image:God the Geometer.jpg|thumb|225px|Early “science,” particularly [[geometry]] and astronomy/astrology, was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this thirteenth Century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of Creation, as many believed that there was something intrinsically "divine" or "perfect" that could be found in [[circle]]s]]
  
* [[Robert Hand]], ''Horoscope Symbols''. Schiffer Publications (Altgen, PA; March 1987) ISBN 0914918168. One of the most thoughtful and authoritative books on astrological technique.
+
====Mechanism====
  
* [[Johannes Kepler]], ''The Harmony of the World'' (1619) ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''[[Harmonice Mundi]]''). American Philosophical Society (USA, April 1997). ISBN 0871692090.
+
Many critics claim that a central problem in astrology is the lack of evidence for a scientifically defined mechanism by which celestial objects can supposedly influence terrestrial affairs.<ref> Astronomical Society of the Pacific, [http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/11/11.html Horoscopes Versus Telescopes: A Focus on Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007.</ref> Astrologers claim that a lack of an explanatory mechanism would not scientifically invalidate astrological findings.<ref> Harding, M., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm Prejudice in Astrological Research.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
* Johannes Kepler, ''On The More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology'' (1601) (Latin: ''De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus''). Kessinger Publishing (USA, January 2003) ISBN 0766133753.
+
Though physical mechanisms are still among the proposed theories of astrology, few modern astrologers believe in a direct causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events.<ref> Seymour, Dr. P., ''Astrology: The Evidence of Science.'' (London: Penguin Group, 1988) ISBN 0-14-019226-3; McGillion, Frank, [http://www.astrology-research.net/researchlibrary/Iatr/pineal.htm The Pineal Gland and the Ancient Art of Iatromathematica.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Phillipson, G., ''Astrology in the Year Zero.'' (London: Flare Publications, 2000) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1 </ref> Some have posited acausal, purely correlative relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of synchronicity proposed by [[Carl Jung|Jung]].<ref> Hyde, Maggie, ''Jung and Astrology.'' (London: The Aquarian, 1992.), p 24-26. </ref> Astrophysicist Victor Mansfield suggests that astrology should draw inspiration from quantum physics.<ref> Mansfield, Victor, [http://www.lightlink.com/vic/astrol.html An Astrophysicist's Sympathetic and Critical View of Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> Others have posited a basis in divination. Utsav Arora, another meditation research specialist and astrologer, argues, "if 100% accuracy were to be the benchmark, we should be closing down and shutting all hospitals, medical labs. Scientific medical equipment and drugs have a long history of errors and miscalculations. Same is the case with computers and electronic. We don’t refute electronic gadgets and equipment just because it fails but we work towards finding cures for the errors." <ref> Cornelius, Geoffrey, “The Moment of Astrology.” ''The Wessex Astrologer'' (Bournemouth, 2003.) </ref> Still others have argued that empirical correlations can stand on their own [[epistemology|epistemologically]], and do not need the support of any theory or mechanism.<ref> Harding, M., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm Prejudice in Astrological Research.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> To some observers, these non-mechanistic concepts raise serious questions about the feasibility of validating astrology through scientific testing, and some have gone so far as to reject the applicability of the scientific method to astrology almost entirely.<ref> Harding, M., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm Prejudice in Astrological Research.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Campion, Nick, Nick Campion's Online Astrology Resource: [http://www.nickcampion.com/nc/science/science.htm Science & Astrology.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref> Some astrologers, on the other hand, believe that astrology is amenable to the scientific method, given sufficiently sophisticated analytical methods, and they cite pilot studies they claim support this view.<ref> Cochrane, D., “Towards a Proof of Astrology: An AstroSignature for Mathematical Ability” ''International Astrologer ISAR Journal'' Winter-Spring 2005, Vol 33, #2. </ref> Consequently, a number of astrologers have called for continuing studies of astrology based on statistical validation.<ref> Pottenger, M. (ed), ''Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology.'' (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3</ref>
  
* William R. Newman & Anthony Grafton (Editors), ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe''. MIT Press (Cambridge, MA; March 2006) ISBN 0262640627.
+
====Research Claims and Counter-claims====
 +
[[Image:Marseffect.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Mars effect: Relative frequency of the [[diurnal motion|diurnal position]] of Mars in the birth chart of eminent athletes.]]
 +
[[Image:Durer astronomer.jpg|thumb|225px|An engraving by Albrecht Dürer featuring Mashallah, from the title page of the ''De scientia motus orbis'' (Latin version with engraving, 1504). As in many medieval illustrations, the [[Compass (drafting)|compass]] here is an icon of religion as well as science, in reference to God as the architect of creation.]]
 +
Several individuals, most notably French psychologist and statistician Michel Gauquelin, claimed to have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain human traits, such as vocations. Gauquelin's most widely known claim is known as the Mars effect, which is said to demonstrate a correlation between the planet Mars occupying certain positions in the sky more often at the birth of eminent sports champions than at the birth of ordinary people. Since its original publication in 1955, the Mars effect has been the subject of studies claiming to refute it, and studies claiming to support and/or expand the original claims, but neither the claims nor the counterclaims have received mainstream scientific notice. <ref>Zelen, M., Kurtz, P., and Abell, G., “Is There a Mars Effect?” ''The Humanist'' 37 (6): 1977. p 36-39; Ertel, Suitbert, [http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v2n1a4.php Raising the Hurdle for the Athletes' Mars Effect: Association Co-Varies With Eminence.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Irving, Ken, [http://www.planetos.info/mmf.html Misunderstandings, Misrepresentations, Frequently Asked Questions, and Frequently Voiced Objections about the Gauquelin Planetary Effects.] Retrieved July 3, 2007; Kollerstrom, N., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/koll1ge.pdf How Ertel Rescued the Gauquelin Effect.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
* Garry Phillipson, ''Astrology in the Year Zero''. Flare Publications (London, 2000) ISBN 0953026191. A balanced overview of thirty opinions on the validity of astrology, including skeptics.
+
Besides the Mars-athletes claims, astrological researchers claim to have found statistical correlations for physical attributes, accidents, personal and mundane events, social trends such as economics, and large geophysical patterns.<ref> O'Neil, Mike, "The Switching Control Applied to Hill and Thompson's Redhead Data." ''Correlation.'' (vol. 11(1), 1991.), p. 24; Ridgley, Sara K., [http://safire.net/sara/introduction.html Astrologically Predictable Patterns in Work Related Injuries.] Retrieved July 5, 2007; Kollerstrom, N., “Investigating Aspects,” ''Astrological Research Methods.'' Volume 1. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3; Gillman, K., [http://www.considerations-mag.com/articles/effectOfPlanets.htm The Effect of Planets in their own Signs.] Retrieved July 5, 2007; Castille, Didier, [http://www.aureas.org/rams/castille02us.pdf Sunny Day for a Wedding.] Retrieved July 5, 2007; R. Merriman, “Research for Financial Astrology Studies.” ''Astrological Research Methods.'' Volume 1. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3; Yuan, Kathy, Zheng, Lu, and Zhu, Qiaoqiao, [http://lunar.behaviouralfinance.net/YuZZ01.pdf Are Investors Moonstruck?] Retrieved July 5, 2007; Johnston, Brian T., [http://cura.free.fr/xv/13brianj.html Planetary Aspects and Terrestrial Earthquakes.] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref> None of these claims were published in a mainstream scientific journal.
  
*[[Ptolemy]], ''Tetrabiblos''. Harvard University Press (Cambridge, MA; October 1980) ISBN 0674994795.
+
The scientific community, where it has commented, claims that astrology has repeatedly failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in numerous controlled studies. Effect size studies in astrology conclude that the mean accuracy of astrological predictions is no greater than what is expected by chance, and astrology's perceived performance has disappeared on critical inspection.<ref> The Scientific Exploration of Astrology, [http://rudolfhsmit.nl/d-effe2.htm How Astrology Compares with Other Approaches.] Retrieved July 5, 2007; Dean, G. and Kelly, I., [http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref>. In reference to [[personality test]]s, astrologers have shown a consistent lack of agreement. One such double-blind study in which astrologers attempted to match birth charts with results of a personality test, which was published in the reputable peer-reviewed scientific journal ''Nature,'' claimed to refute astrologers' assertions that they can solve clients' personal problems by reading natal charts. The study concluded that astrologers had no special ability to interpret personality from astrological readings.<ref> Carlson, Shawn, [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v318/n6045/abs/318419a0.html A Double-blind Test of Astrology.] Retrieved July 5, 2007; Howell, Tom, [http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/AstroSkc.htm Skeptical Studies in Astrology.] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref> Another study that used a personality test and a questionnaire contended that some astrologers failed to predict objective facts about people or agree with each other's interpretations.<ref> Nanninga, Rob, [http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html The Astrotest.] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref> When testing for cognitive, behavioral, physical, and other variables, one study of astrological "time twins" claimed that human characteristics are not molded by the influence of the sun, moon, and planets at the time of birth.<ref> Dean, G. and Kelly, I., [http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref> Skeptics of astrology also suggest that the perceived accuracy of astrological interpretations and descriptions of one's personality can be accounted for in that we tend to exaggerate positive “accuracies” and overlook whatever does not really fit, especially when vague language is used.<ref> Dean, G. and Kelly, I., [http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref> They also claim that statistical research is often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology due to uncontrolled artifacts.<ref> Dean, Geoffery, [http://www.rudolfhsmit.nl/d-arti2.htm Artifacts in Data Often Wrongly Seen as Evidence for Astrology.] Retrieved July 5, 2007. </ref> It has also been suggested that the failed tests of researchers who are critical of astrology stem from the testers' failure to understand astrology and its limitations.<ref> Harding, M., [http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm Prejudice in Astrological Research.] Retrieved July 3, 2007. </ref>
  
* [[Richard Tarnas]], ''Cosmos and Psyche:  Intimations of a New World View''. Viking (New York, 2006) ISBN 0670032921.
+
==Notes==
  
* Theodore Otto Wedel, ''Astrology in the Middle Ages''. Dover Publications (Mineola, NY; 2005) ISBN 048643642X. Originally published by Yale University Press in 1920, this volume traces the development of Medieval conceptions of astrology from the fifth through the fifteenth centuries.
+
<references/>
  
==External links==
+
==References==
{{commons|Category:Astrology}}
 
<div class="references-small">
 
;General
 
*[http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=astrology Over a thousand astrology sites listed at the Open Directory project]
 
*[http://www.astrojyoti.com/bphsindex.htm Read Vedic Astrology scriptures online]
 
;History
 
*[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/  Skyscript &mdash; Classical Astrology] - A modern yet faithful look at Classical astrology.
 
*[http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIV/astrology.htm  Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical] - A treatise on astrology by Dr. Gustav-Adolf Schoener and translated by Shane Denson.
 
*[http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/astrologyinrenaissancemain.html  History of Astrology in the Renaissance] Series of articles on astrology and its influence in the Renaissance.
 
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Astrologia.html Astrologia] - Article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
 
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/astr-hel.htm Hellenistic Astrology] - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on Hellenistic astrology and its interaction with philosophical schools.
 
*[http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/special/science/astro/index.html Astrology & Astronomy in Chaucer's Time] from [[Harvard University]] professor L.D. Benson.
 
  
;Schools
+
* Berlinski, David. ''The Secrets of the Vaulted Sky: Astrology and the Art of Prediction.'' Harcourt. 2003. ISBN 0151005273
*[http://www.kepler.edu  Kepler College of Astrological Arts and Sciences] - Based in Seattle, USA, Kepler College is the only college in the western hemisphere authorized to issue A.A., B.A., and M.A degrees in Astrological Studies.
+
* Cornelius, Geoffrey. ''Moment of Astrology.'' Wessex Astrologer Ltd. 2005. ISBN 1902405110
*[http://www.bathspa.ac.uk/sophia/ The Sophia Centre]  Based near Bath, England, the Centre is a department of School of Historical and Cultural Studies at Bath Spa University College. Funded by the Sophia Trust, the Centre teaches an innovative MA in Cultural Astronomy and Astrology and supervises postgraduate research.  
+
* De Vore, Nicholas. ''Encyclopedia of Astrology.'' New York: Astrology Classics. 2005. ISBN 1933303093
*[http://www.astrology.org.uk/ Faculty of Astrological Studies] - Founded on 7th June 1948 in London, England at 19.50 BST; its Diploma, the D.F.Astrol.S., is among the most highly valued and recognised international qualifications.
+
* Eade, J. C. ''The Forgotten Sky: A Guide to Astrology in English Literature.'' Oxford University. 1984. ISBN 0198128134
 
+
* Gauquelin, Michel. ''Cosmic Influences on Human Behavior.'' Santa Fe: Aurora. 1985. ISBN 094335823X
;Astrology and science
+
* Gauquelin, Michel. ''The Scientific Basis of Astrology.'' New York: Stein and Day Publishers. 1970. ISBN 0812813502
*[http://www.astrology-and-science.com/ Astrology and Science] - A critical look at astrology and science.
+
* Hand, Robert. ''Horoscope Symbols.'' Altgen, PA: Schiffer Publications. 1987. ISBN 0914918168
*[http://www.astrozero.co.uk Astrology in the Year Zero]- Evaluation of astrology; linked to Garry Phillipson's book of the same name.
+
* Kepler, Johannes. ''The Harmony of the World.'' American Philosophical Society. 1997. ISBN 0871692090
*[http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html  The Astrotest] - An account of a test of the [[predictive power]] of astrology, with references to some other experiments.
+
* Kepler, Johannes. ''On the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology.'' Kessinger Publishing. 2003. ISBN 0766133753
*[http://www.discord.org/~lippard/kammann.html The True Disbelievers] by Richard Kamann and Marcello Truzzi is a report of alleged internal events at CSICOP regarding their own claimed confirmation of M. Gauquelin's 'Mars Effect'
+
* Newman William R., and Grafton, Anthony, (Editors). ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe.'' Cambridge, MA: MIT. 2006. ISBN 0262640627
*[http://www.world-of-dawkins.com/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.htm  The real romance in the stars] - A critical view of astrology by [[Richard Dawkins]].
+
* Phillipson, Garry. ''Astrology in the Year Zero.'' London: Flare Publications. 2000. ISBN 0953026191
*[http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/skepticism/blfaq_astro_sci_pseudo.htm Is Astrology A Pseudoscience?]
+
* [[Ptolemy]]. ''Tetrabiblos.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. 1980. ISBN 0674994795
 
+
* Tarnas, Richard ''Cosmos and Psyche: Intimations of a New World View.'' New York: Viking. 2006. ISBN 0670032921
;Astrology and the Bible
+
* Wedel, Theodore Otto. ''Astrology in the Middle Ages.'' Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. 2005. ISBN 048643642X
*[http://www.thenewagesite.com/astrology/1.php Astrology in the Old and New Testament] by [[J. J. Dewey]]
 
 
 
;Types of astrology
 
*[http://www.khaldea.com/rudhyar/index.shtml Dane Rudhyar Archival Project] - Modern western
 
*[http://finblake.home.mindspring.com/UranBeacon.htm A Comprehensive Uranian Astrology Website]
 
*[http://astrology.indianetzone.com/ Information on Vedic Astrology, Horoscope,Gemstones,Rudraksha,Numerology,Nadi Shastra,Lal Kitab etc.]
 
 
 
;Tools
 
*[http://alabe.com/freechart/ Astrolabe Software] - Calculate your personal natal chart or ''any'' astrological chart for free using this simple online calculation form.
 
* [http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/  A Comprehensive Astrological Dictionary] — Use this to look up many common astrological terms, both in ancient and modern astrology.
 
*[http://www.astrolog.org/astrolog.htm Astrolog 5.40] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog 5.40.
 
 
 
;Western astrology natal reports
 
*[http://www.astro.com/ http://www.astro.com/] — Astrodienst (available in 8 languages, includes sidereal and Hindu charts as well)
 
*[http://www.astrologie-info.com/indexe.cgi http://www.astrologie-info.com/] — Astrology Info: Natal chart in graphic/text mode and Interactive Moon calendar
 
 
 
;Natal reports for other systems
 
*[http://www.lunarcal.org/ http://www.lunarcal.org]
 
*[http://www.onereed.com/ http://www.onereed.com/]
 
*[http://www.chaosastrology.com/ http://www.chaosastrology.com/]
 
*[http://www.planetarypositions.com/ Vedic Astrology - Jyotish] — Natal Chart Representation by way of Indian Astrology.
 
</div>
 
 
 
<!--- See the Talk page (under Categorisation) before changing this --->
 
 
 
<!--- See the Talk page (under Categorisation) before changing this: request required and no feedback given: it as always been an Art/Science studied under "esoteric" schools, movements and traditions --->
 
 
 
[[Category:Astrology| ]]
 
[[Category:Divination]]
 
[[Category:Esoteric cosmology]]
 
[[Category:Esotericism]]
 
[[Category:Folklore]]
 
[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]]
 
[[Category:Prediction]]
 
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
 
[[Category:Protoscience]]
 
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
 
 
 
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[[de:Astrologie]]
 
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[[es:Astrología]]
 
[[eo:Astrologio]]
 
[[fa:ستاره‌بینی]]
 
[[fr:Astrologie]]
 
[[hr:Astrologija]]
 
[[id:Astrologi]]
 
[[ia:Astrologia]]
 
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 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved April 21, 2016.
 +
* About.com. [http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/skepticism/blfaq_astro_sci_pseudo.htm Is Astrology a Pseudoscience?]
 +
* Astrolabe.com. [http://alabe.com/freechart/ Astrolabe.]
 +
* Astrology and Science.com. [http://www.astrology-and-science.com/ Astrology and Science.]
 +
* Astrology Weekly. [http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/ Astrological Dictionary.]
 +
* Bunkahle, Andreas. [http://www.astrologie-info.com/indexe.cgi Astrology.]
 +
* Chaos Astrology. [http://www.chaosastrology.com/ Astrology and Chaos Theory.]
 +
* Faculty of Astrological Studies. [http://www.astrology.org.uk/ Faculty of Astrological Studies.]
 +
* Houlding, Deborah. [http://www.skyscript.co.uk/ Skyscript Astrology Pages.]
 +
* Indianetzone.com. [http://astrology.indianetzone.com/ Astrology.]
 +
* Kepler College. [http://www.kepler.edu Kepler College of Astrological Arts and Sciences]
 +
* Lawrence, Marilynn. [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/astr-hel.htm Hellenistic Astrology.]
 +
* Phillipson, Garry. [http://www.astrozero.co.uk Astrology in the Year Zero.]
 +
* Planetary Positions. [http://www.planetarypositions.com/ Planetary Positions.]
 +
* Ramsay, William. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Astrologia.html Astrologia.]
 +
* Schoener, Dr. Gustav-Adolf. [http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIV/astrology.htm Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical.] 
 +
* Tata, S. P. [http://www.astrojyoti.com/bphsindex.htm Vedic Astrology Shastras Online.]
 +
* Warnock, Christopher. [http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/astrologyinrenaissancemain.html History of Astrology in the Renaissance.]
  
 +
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
  
 
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Revision as of 16:09, 21 April 2016

Color enhanced version of the Flammarion woodcut. The original was published in Paris in 1888.

Astrology is a group of systems, traditions, and beliefs in which knowledge of the relative positions of celestial bodies and related information is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial events. The word astrology is derived from the Greek αστρολογία, from άστρον (astron, "star") and λόγος (logos, "word"). The -λογία suffix is written in English as -logy, "study" or "discipline." A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer, or, less often, an astrologist. Historically, the term mathematicus was used to denote a person proficient in astrology, astronomy, and mathematics.[1]

Although the two fields share a common origin, modern astronomy is entirely distinct from astrology. While astronomy is the scientific study of astronomical objects and phenomena, the practice of astrology is concerned with the correlation between heavenly bodies (and measurements of the celestial sphere) and earthly and human affairs.[2] Astrology is variously considered by its proponents to be a symbolic language, a form of art, a form of science, or a form of divination.[3] Critics generally consider astrology to be a pseudoscience or superstition as it has failed empirical tests in controlled studies.[4]

Beliefs

Astrological glyphs for some of the “planets” of astrology, including the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, and Pluto.

The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in most of the ancient world and are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim "as above, so below." Tycho Brahe used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: suspiciendo despicio, "by looking up I see downward." Although the belief that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on earth was once generally held in most traditions of astrology around the world, in the West there has historically been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology and whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or portents of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.

While the connection between celestial mechanics and terrestrial dynamics was explored first by Isaac Newton with his development of a universal theory of gravitation, claims that the gravitational effects of the planets and the stars are what accounts for astrological generalizations are not substantiated by the scientific community, nor are they advocated by most astrologers.

Many of those who practice astrology believe that the positions of certain celestial bodies either influence or correlate with people's personality traits, important events in their lives, physical characteristics, and to some extent their destiny. Most modern astrologers believe that the cosmos (and especially the solar system) acts as "a single unit," so that any happening in any part of it inevitably is reflected in every other part. Skeptics dispute these claims, pointing to a lack of concrete evidence of significant influence of this sort.

Most astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real or construed celestial bodies and on the construction of celestial patterns as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the Sun, the Moon, the planets, the stars and the lunar nodes. The calculations performed in casting a horoscope involve arithmetic and simple geometry, which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the tropical or sidereal zodiacal signs on one hand, and by the local horizon (Ascendant) and midheaven (Medium Coeli) on the other. This latter (local) frame is typically further divided into the twelve astrological houses.

In past centuries, astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements. Today astrologers use data drawn up by astronomers, which are transformed to a set of astrological tables, called ephemerides, that show the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time.

Traditions

Zodiac signs, sixteenth century European woodcut

There are many different traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines from one culture to another. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold completely different doctrines, although they too share some similar features due to the fact that they are drawing on similar astronomical sources, i.e. planets, stars, etc.

Listed below are some significant traditions of astrology. They include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Babylonian astrology
  • Horoscopic astrology and its specific subsets:
    • Hellenistic astrology
    • Jyotish or Vedic astrology
    • Persian-Arabic astrology
    • Medieval & Renaissance horoscopic astrology
    • Modern Western astrology with its specific subsets:
      • Modern Tropical and sidereal horoscopic astrology
      • Hamburg School of Astrology
        • Uranian astrology, subset of the Hamburg School
          • Cosmobiology
          • Psychological astrology or astropsychology
  • Chinese astrology
  • Kabbalistic astrology
  • Mesoamerican astrology
    • Nahuatl astrology
    • Maya astrology
  • Tibetan astrology
  • Celtic astrology

Horoscopic Astrology

Horoscopic astrology is a very specific and complex system of astrology that was developed in the Mediterranean region and specifically Hellenistic Egypt sometime around the late second or early first century B.C.E.[5] This tradition deals largely with astrological charts cast for specific moments in time in order to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of the planets at that moment based on specific sets of rules and guidelines. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the ecliptic at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the ascendant. Horoscopic astrology has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology across the world, especially in Africa, India, Europe, and the Middle East, and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology including Indian, Hellenistic, Medieval, and most other modern Western traditions of astrology.

The Horoscope

Central to horoscopic astrology and its branches is the calculation of a horoscope or what has recently become known as an astrological chart. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on earth at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a natal chart—horoscope chart. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the rising sign, or ascendant, demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope, and the word for the ascendant in Greek was horoskopos. This is the word that the term "horoscope" derives from and in modern times it has come to be used as a general term for an astrological chart as a whole. Other commonly used names for the horoscope/natal chart in English include natus, birth-chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, nativity, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply chart, among others.

The Tropical and Sidereal Zodiacs

The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from earth during a full year is called the ecliptic. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets, is called the zodiac.

The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac, which evenly divides the ecliptic into 12 segments of 30 degrees, each with the start of the Zodiac (Aries 0°) being the Sun's position at the March equinox. The zodiacal signs in this system bear no relation to the constellations of the same name but stay aligned to the months and seasons. The tropical zodiac is used as a historical coordinate system in astronomy.

All Jyotish (Hindu) and a few Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac, which uses the same evenly divided ecliptic but which approximately stays aligned to the positions of the observable constellations with the same name as the zodiacal signs. The sidereal zodiac is computed from the tropical zodiac by adding an offset called Ayanamsa. This offset changes with the precession of the equinoxes.

Eighteenth century Icelandic manuscript showing astrological houses and planetary glyphs.

Branches of Horoscopic Astrology

Every tradition of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four specific branches which are directed towards specific subjects or used for specific purposes. Often this involves using a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area. Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from the four fundamental branches.

There are four major branches of horoscopic astrology:

  • Natal astrology—the study of a person's natal chart in order to gain information about the individual and the individual’s life experience.
  • Katarchic astrology—includes both electional and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place.
  • Horary astrology—a system of astrology used to answer a specific question by studying the chart at the moment the question is posed to an astrologer.
  • Mundane or world astrology—the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes, and the rise and fall of empires or religions.

History of Astrology

The anatomical-astrological human of antiquity showing believed correlations between areas of the body and astrological entities

Origins

The origins of much of astrology that would later develop in Asia, Europe, and the Middle East are found among the ancient Babylonians and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the second millennium B.C.E. This system of celestial omens later spread from the Babylonians to other areas such as India, China, and Greece, where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the fourth century B.C.E., and then around the late second or early first century B.C.E. after the Alexandrian conquests. This Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in Alexandrian Egypt, quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East, and India.

Before the Scientific Revolution

From the classical period through the scientific revolution, astrological training played a critical role in advancing astronomical, mathematical, medical, and psychological knowledge. Insofar as the interpretation of supposed astrological influences included the observation and long-term tracking of celestial objects, it was often astrologers who provided the first systematic documentation of the movements of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and the stars. The differentiation between astronomy and astrology varied from place to place; they were indistinguishable in ancient Babylonia, but separated to a greater degree in ancient Greece. The Greeks saw astronomy and astrology as being separate. This idea became widely accepted around the time of the "Great Astronomers," Galileo, Kepler, Brahe, etc., most of which practiced both. Even in those times, astrology was often challenged by Hellenistic skeptics, church authorities, and medieval thinkers.

The pattern of astronomical knowledge gained from astrological endeavors has been historically repeated across numerous cultures, from ancient India through the classical Mayan civilization to medieval Europe. Given this historical contribution, astrology has been called a protoscience along with pseudosciences such as alchemy.

Many prominent scientists, such as Nicholas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Carl Gustav Jung practiced or significantly contributed to astrology.

Effects on World Culture

Zodiac in a sixth century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Israel.

Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on both Western and Eastern cultures. In the middle ages, when even the educated of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below.

Language

“Influenza,” from Medieval Latin influentia meaning “influence,” was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word “disaster" comes from the Latin dis-aster meaning "bad star." Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.

Astrology as a Descriptive Language for the Mind

Different astrological traditions are dependent on a particular culture's prevailing mythology. These varied mythologies naturally reflect the cultures they emerge from. Images from these mythological systems are usually understandable to natives of the culture. Most classicists think that Western astrology is dependent on Greek mythology.

Many writers, notably Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare, used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters' motivations.[6] An understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature. Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung, believe in its descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims.[7] Consequently, some look at astrology as a way of learning about oneself and one's motivations. Increasingly, psychologists and historians have become interested in Jung's theory of the fundamentality and indissolubility of archetypes in the human mind and their correlation with the symbols of the horoscope.[8]

Western Astrology and Alchemy

Extract and symbol key from seventeenth century alchemy text.

Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ruled a certain metal.

The Seven Liberal Arts and Western Astrology

In medieval Europe, a university education was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the Seven Liberal Arts.

Dante Alighieri speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. As the arts were seen as operating in ascending order, so were the planets and so, in decreasing order of planetary speed, Grammar was assigned to the quickest moving celestial body (the Moon), Dialectic to Mercury, Rhetoric to Venus, Music to the Sun, Arithmetic to Mars, Geometry to Jupiter and Astronomia to the slowest moving Saturn. After this sequence, wisdom was supposed to have been achieved by the medieval university student.

Astrology and Science

The Modern Era

By the time of Francis Bacon and the scientific revolution, newly emerging scientific disciplines acquired a method of systematic empirical induction validated by experimental observations, which lead to the scientific revolution.[9] At this point, astrology and astronomy began to diverge; astronomy became one of the central sciences while astrology was increasingly viewed by natural scientists as an occult science or superstition. This separation accelerated through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[10]

Within the contemporary scientific community, astrology is generally labeled as a pseudoscience and it has been criticized as being unscientific both by scientific bodies and by individual scientists.[11] In 1975 the American Humanist Association published one of the most widely known modern criticisms of astrology, characterizing those who continue to have faith in the subject as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary."[12] Astronomer Carl Sagan did not sign the statement, noting that, while he felt astrology lacked validity, he found the statement's tone authoritarian. He suggested that the lack of a causal mechanism for astrology was relevant but not in itself convincing.[13]

Although astrology has had no accepted scientific standing for three centuries, it has been the subject of much research among astrologers since the beginning of the twentieth century. In his landmark study of twentieth-century research into natal astrology, vocal astrology critic Geoffrey Dean noted and documented the burgeoning research activity, primarily within the astrological community.[14]

Claims about Obstacles in Research

Astrologers have argued that there are significant obstacles in the way of carrying out scientific research into astrology today, including funding, lack of background in science and statistics by astrologers, and insufficient expertise in astrology by research scientists to test astrological claims.[15] There are only a handful of journals dealing with scientific research into astrology (i.e. astrological journals directed towards scientific research or scientific journals publishing astrological research). Some astrologers have argued that few practitioners today pursue scientific testing of astrology because they feel that working with clients on a daily basis provides a personal validation for them.[16]

Some astrologers argue that most studies of astrology do not reflect the nature of astrological practice and that existing experimental methods and research tools are not adequate for studying this complex discipline.[17] Some astrology proponents claim that the prevailing attitudes and motives of many opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of hypotheses to be tested, the conduct of the tests, and the reporting of results.[18]

Early “science,” particularly geometry and astronomy/astrology, was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this thirteenth Century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of Creation, as many believed that there was something intrinsically "divine" or "perfect" that could be found in circles

Mechanism

Many critics claim that a central problem in astrology is the lack of evidence for a scientifically defined mechanism by which celestial objects can supposedly influence terrestrial affairs.[19] Astrologers claim that a lack of an explanatory mechanism would not scientifically invalidate astrological findings.[20]

Though physical mechanisms are still among the proposed theories of astrology, few modern astrologers believe in a direct causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events.[21] Some have posited acausal, purely correlative relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of synchronicity proposed by Jung.[22] Astrophysicist Victor Mansfield suggests that astrology should draw inspiration from quantum physics.[23] Others have posited a basis in divination. Utsav Arora, another meditation research specialist and astrologer, argues, "if 100% accuracy were to be the benchmark, we should be closing down and shutting all hospitals, medical labs. Scientific medical equipment and drugs have a long history of errors and miscalculations. Same is the case with computers and electronic. We don’t refute electronic gadgets and equipment just because it fails but we work towards finding cures for the errors." [24] Still others have argued that empirical correlations can stand on their own epistemologically, and do not need the support of any theory or mechanism.[25] To some observers, these non-mechanistic concepts raise serious questions about the feasibility of validating astrology through scientific testing, and some have gone so far as to reject the applicability of the scientific method to astrology almost entirely.[26] Some astrologers, on the other hand, believe that astrology is amenable to the scientific method, given sufficiently sophisticated analytical methods, and they cite pilot studies they claim support this view.[27] Consequently, a number of astrologers have called for continuing studies of astrology based on statistical validation.[28]

Research Claims and Counter-claims

The Mars effect: Relative frequency of the diurnal position of Mars in the birth chart of eminent athletes.
An engraving by Albrecht Dürer featuring Mashallah, from the title page of the De scientia motus orbis (Latin version with engraving, 1504). As in many medieval illustrations, the compass here is an icon of religion as well as science, in reference to God as the architect of creation.

Several individuals, most notably French psychologist and statistician Michel Gauquelin, claimed to have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain human traits, such as vocations. Gauquelin's most widely known claim is known as the Mars effect, which is said to demonstrate a correlation between the planet Mars occupying certain positions in the sky more often at the birth of eminent sports champions than at the birth of ordinary people. Since its original publication in 1955, the Mars effect has been the subject of studies claiming to refute it, and studies claiming to support and/or expand the original claims, but neither the claims nor the counterclaims have received mainstream scientific notice. [29]

Besides the Mars-athletes claims, astrological researchers claim to have found statistical correlations for physical attributes, accidents, personal and mundane events, social trends such as economics, and large geophysical patterns.[30] None of these claims were published in a mainstream scientific journal.

The scientific community, where it has commented, claims that astrology has repeatedly failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in numerous controlled studies. Effect size studies in astrology conclude that the mean accuracy of astrological predictions is no greater than what is expected by chance, and astrology's perceived performance has disappeared on critical inspection.[31]. In reference to personality tests, astrologers have shown a consistent lack of agreement. One such double-blind study in which astrologers attempted to match birth charts with results of a personality test, which was published in the reputable peer-reviewed scientific journal Nature, claimed to refute astrologers' assertions that they can solve clients' personal problems by reading natal charts. The study concluded that astrologers had no special ability to interpret personality from astrological readings.[32] Another study that used a personality test and a questionnaire contended that some astrologers failed to predict objective facts about people or agree with each other's interpretations.[33] When testing for cognitive, behavioral, physical, and other variables, one study of astrological "time twins" claimed that human characteristics are not molded by the influence of the sun, moon, and planets at the time of birth.[34] Skeptics of astrology also suggest that the perceived accuracy of astrological interpretations and descriptions of one's personality can be accounted for in that we tend to exaggerate positive “accuracies” and overlook whatever does not really fit, especially when vague language is used.[35] They also claim that statistical research is often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology due to uncontrolled artifacts.[36] It has also been suggested that the failed tests of researchers who are critical of astrology stem from the testers' failure to understand astrology and its limitations.[37]

Notes

  1. Rutkin, Darrel H., Galileo, Astrology and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Ultralingua Online Dictionary, Definition of “mathematicus.” Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  2. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Definition of “astrology.” Retrieved July 3, 2007; Compact Oxford English Dictionary, Definition of “astrology.” Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  3. Nègre, Alain, A Transdisciplinary Approach to Science and Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Campion, Nick, Nick Campion's Online Astrology Resource: Science & Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Definition of “astrology.” Retrieved July 3, 2007; Encyclopædia Britannica, astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  4. WordNet Search 3.0, Definition of “astrology.” Retrieved July 3, 2007; Fraknoi, Andrew, Activities With Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007; The Scientific Exploration of Astrology, The Case For and Against Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  5. Pingree, David, From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner. (Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997.), p 26.
  6. Kitson, A., Astrology and English Literature. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Allen, M., and Fisher, J. H., Essential Chaucer: Science, Including Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Mattar, A. B. P., et al, Astronomy and Astrology in the Works of Chaucer. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Brown, P., Shakespeare and Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Piechoski, F., Shakespeare's Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  7. Jung, Carl G., "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious." The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung. (Modern Library, 1993.), p 362-363.
  8. Tarnas, Richard, Cosmos and Psyche: Intimations of a New World View (New York: Viking, 2006). ISBN 0-670-03292-1
  9. Hooker, Richard, The Scientific Revolution. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  10. Tester, Jim, A History of Western Astrology. (Ballantine Books, 1989.)
  11. WordNet Search 3.0, Definition of “astrology.” Retrieved July 3, 2007; Dawkins, Richard, The Real Romance in the Stars. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Beliefnet.com, British Physicist Debunks Astrology in Indian Lecture. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  12. Bok, Bart J. et al, Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  13. Sagan, Carl, "Letter." The Humanist 36 (1976): 2; Karadimas, Mariapaula, Astrology: What it is and what it isn't. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  14. Dean, G. et al, Recent Advances in Natal Astrology: A Critical Review 1900-1976. (England: The Astrological Association, 1977.)
  15. Harding, M., Prejudice in Astrological Research. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Eysenck, H. J., and Nias, D. K. B., Astrology: Science or Superstition? (Penguin Books, 1982.) ISBN 0-14-022397-5; Phillipson, G., Astrology in the Year Zero. (London: Flare Publications, 2000.) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1; Avalon School of Astrology, Avalon School History. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  16. Phillipson, G., Astrology in the Year Zero. (London: Flare Publications, 2000.) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1; Irving, K., Science, Astrology, and the Gauquelin Planetary Effects. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  17. Urban-Lurain, M., “Introduction to Multivariate Analysis,” Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3; Perry, G., “How Do We Know What We Think We Know? From Paradigm to Method in Astrological Research,” Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3
  18. Harding, M., Prejudice in Astrological Research. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  19. Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Horoscopes Versus Telescopes: A Focus on Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  20. Harding, M., Prejudice in Astrological Research. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  21. Seymour, Dr. P., Astrology: The Evidence of Science. (London: Penguin Group, 1988) ISBN 0-14-019226-3; McGillion, Frank, The Pineal Gland and the Ancient Art of Iatromathematica. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Phillipson, G., Astrology in the Year Zero. (London: Flare Publications, 2000) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1
  22. Hyde, Maggie, Jung and Astrology. (London: The Aquarian, 1992.), p 24-26.
  23. Mansfield, Victor, An Astrophysicist's Sympathetic and Critical View of Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  24. Cornelius, Geoffrey, “The Moment of Astrology.” The Wessex Astrologer (Bournemouth, 2003.)
  25. Harding, M., Prejudice in Astrological Research. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  26. Harding, M., Prejudice in Astrological Research. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Campion, Nick, Nick Campion's Online Astrology Resource: Science & Astrology. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  27. Cochrane, D., “Towards a Proof of Astrology: An AstroSignature for Mathematical Ability” International Astrologer ISAR Journal Winter-Spring 2005, Vol 33, #2.
  28. Pottenger, M. (ed), Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3
  29. Zelen, M., Kurtz, P., and Abell, G., “Is There a Mars Effect?” The Humanist 37 (6): 1977. p 36-39; Ertel, Suitbert, Raising the Hurdle for the Athletes' Mars Effect: Association Co-Varies With Eminence. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Irving, Ken, Misunderstandings, Misrepresentations, Frequently Asked Questions, and Frequently Voiced Objections about the Gauquelin Planetary Effects. Retrieved July 3, 2007; Kollerstrom, N., How Ertel Rescued the Gauquelin Effect. Retrieved July 3, 2007.
  30. O'Neil, Mike, "The Switching Control Applied to Hill and Thompson's Redhead Data." Correlation. (vol. 11(1), 1991.), p. 24; Ridgley, Sara K., Astrologically Predictable Patterns in Work Related Injuries. Retrieved July 5, 2007; Kollerstrom, N., “Investigating Aspects,” Astrological Research Methods. Volume 1. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3; Gillman, K., The Effect of Planets in their own Signs. Retrieved July 5, 2007; Castille, Didier, Sunny Day for a Wedding. Retrieved July 5, 2007; R. Merriman, “Research for Financial Astrology Studies.” Astrological Research Methods. Volume 1. (Los Angeles: International Society for Astrological Research, 1995.) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3; Yuan, Kathy, Zheng, Lu, and Zhu, Qiaoqiao, Are Investors Moonstruck? Retrieved July 5, 2007; Johnston, Brian T., Planetary Aspects and Terrestrial Earthquakes. Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  31. The Scientific Exploration of Astrology, How Astrology Compares with Other Approaches. Retrieved July 5, 2007; Dean, G. and Kelly, I., Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi? Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  32. Carlson, Shawn, A Double-blind Test of Astrology. Retrieved July 5, 2007; Howell, Tom, Skeptical Studies in Astrology. Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  33. Nanninga, Rob, The Astrotest. Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  34. Dean, G. and Kelly, I., Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi? Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  35. Dean, G. and Kelly, I., Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi? Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  36. Dean, Geoffery, Artifacts in Data Often Wrongly Seen as Evidence for Astrology. Retrieved July 5, 2007.
  37. Harding, M., Prejudice in Astrological Research. Retrieved July 3, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Berlinski, David. The Secrets of the Vaulted Sky: Astrology and the Art of Prediction. Harcourt. 2003. ISBN 0151005273
  • Cornelius, Geoffrey. Moment of Astrology. Wessex Astrologer Ltd. 2005. ISBN 1902405110
  • De Vore, Nicholas. Encyclopedia of Astrology. New York: Astrology Classics. 2005. ISBN 1933303093
  • Eade, J. C. The Forgotten Sky: A Guide to Astrology in English Literature. Oxford University. 1984. ISBN 0198128134
  • Gauquelin, Michel. Cosmic Influences on Human Behavior. Santa Fe: Aurora. 1985. ISBN 094335823X
  • Gauquelin, Michel. The Scientific Basis of Astrology. New York: Stein and Day Publishers. 1970. ISBN 0812813502
  • Hand, Robert. Horoscope Symbols. Altgen, PA: Schiffer Publications. 1987. ISBN 0914918168
  • Kepler, Johannes. The Harmony of the World. American Philosophical Society. 1997. ISBN 0871692090
  • Kepler, Johannes. On the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology. Kessinger Publishing. 2003. ISBN 0766133753
  • Newman William R., and Grafton, Anthony, (Editors). Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, MA: MIT. 2006. ISBN 0262640627
  • Phillipson, Garry. Astrology in the Year Zero. London: Flare Publications. 2000. ISBN 0953026191
  • Ptolemy. Tetrabiblos. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. 1980. ISBN 0674994795
  • Tarnas, Richard Cosmos and Psyche: Intimations of a New World View. New York: Viking. 2006. ISBN 0670032921
  • Wedel, Theodore Otto. Astrology in the Middle Ages. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. 2005. ISBN 048643642X

External links

All links retrieved April 21, 2016.

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